SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN AIR POLLUTION IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY

Geographical studies of corporate behavior tend to overlook reactions from competitors and implicitly equate expansion with success. The paper challenges this tradition by discussing the defense of a troubled department store company against hostile takeover bids by expansionary strategies. The expansion was directed initially towards the bidders' home markets to create potential conflicts with antitrust laws. When the bidders retreated, the expansion was refocused on growth markets to maximize both corporate size and thereby also the financial resources needed for its takeover.     

The Quest for Global Market Leadership: Example of Two Welding Companies*

The corporate policies and worldwide expansion of Esab AB and The Lincoln Electric Company, the world's leading welding companies, are described. The emphasis is on the role of financial resources, executive action, and corporate environment in handling the overcapacity crisis from the late 1970s to the mid 1980s and the deepening globalization thereafter.     

Moved by the Company - International Migrants and Transnational Organisations

Labour markets are generally thought to have become more integrated across international boundaries. Employees that move between branches of transnational organisations are a potential contributor to this integration. Interviews with human resources managers in 33 New Zealand‐based organisations indicate that the number of employees transferred is small and likely to decrease as corporate functions are transferred from New Zealand to regional offices.     

Geographies of the Firm and Transnational Agro-food Corporations in East Asia

Agro-food transnational corporations (TNCs) are pivotal players in the emergent regulatory structures of the East Asian agro-food system, but there has been little explicit concern to account theoretically or empirically for their prevailing socio-spatial practices and strategies. This paper uses the case of Nestlé in South East Asia to make three claims. First, transnational corporate strategy is best understood as comprising an interaction of restructuring processes within the arenas of production, realisation (sales), and reproduction (corporate finance and investment). Second, the analysis of agro-food transnationals in Asia requires elevated attention to the local regulation of food systems. Third, in Nestlé's case at least, the articulation of global strategies with local arenas of production and markets encourages corporate finance to play a key role in the generation of profit. This is evidenced through the extensive use of intra-firm trade and royalty payments (or, related party transactions) by Nestlé in Thailand.     

外资效应、经济复杂度与内资企业出口市场拓展

外资企业对内资企业出口能力提升和出口市场拓展具有重要影响。本文基于2000—2016年中国地级市出口数据,分析中国内资企业出口市场拓展格局,研究外资效应对内资企业进入新出口市场和出口额增长的影响,并依据经济和技术复杂度检验外资效应的区域和产业异质性。描述性分析发现：① 内资企业出口在国内呈多级连片格局,逐渐向非洲和拉丁美洲等新兴市场拓展。② 处于低复杂度城市/产业的内资企业更倾向于拓展新出口市场,处于高复杂度城市/产业的内资企业则倾向于提升出口额。计量模型结果表明：① 外资企业推动了内资企业出口额增长,但抑制了其进入新出口市场,分别表现出溢出效应和竞争效应。② 从区域和产业异质性来看,外资企业仅在高复杂度城市/产业阻碍了内资企业出口市场拓展,表现出竞争效应;而在低复杂度城市/产业则表现为溢出效应。③ 相较于低经济复杂度城市,高经济复杂度城市的内资企业受到的竞争和溢出效应均更强。     

消费升级视角下城市生活服务空间的演变及影响因素研究——以武汉菜市场为例

消费升级时代孕育了生活性服务新业态,改变了生活服务业的城市空间格局。论文以菜市场作为生活服务空间的代表,选取武汉市这一中国城市消费升级样本及城市疫后复苏“风向标”作为典型案例区,结合GIS空间计量和STATA统计分析,探讨菜市场综合体系的形成过程、类型差异和影响因素。研究发现：① 武汉市菜市场经历了传统农贸市场主导—零售新业态扩张—社区尺度回落的历程,形成以大卖场生鲜部、农贸市场、生鲜超市及社区菜场为主的复合型生活服务空间,并在疫后展现出一定韧性;② 武汉市菜市场整体上由双核心向多核心转变,由城市中心向外围延伸,且呈现出农贸市场“团簇状”、生鲜超市“条型”、大卖场“点状”、社区菜场“蝶形”的分类型差异化格局;③ 全业态菜市场布局受社会、经济、区位和发展基础影响显著,传统业态受市场和区位要素影响显著,零售新业态受经济要素和前期菜市场集聚程度的影响显著,且消费升级态势下新建菜市场选址更加偏好购物中心代表的体验式消费场所。研究结果对于丰富现代菜市场体系的类型研究,拓展城市生活服务空间研究的学科视域具有一定理论意义,同时对于优化城市生活服务空间结构以满足居民日益增长的美好生活需要和服务品质追求具有一定现实价值。     

Decoding the Development Strategy of a Major Retailer: Wal-Mart's Expansion in the United States

This research aims to provide insight regarding Wal-Mart's retail development strategy in its expansion across the continental United States. The study examines store location patterns and relationships between Wal-Mart's store and distribution center locations and markets. The study shows that, although radial expansion is broadly characteristic of the dense store patterns that have been well established for Wal-Mart at the national level, expansion patterns at the regional level are consistent with a selective process based on factors other than store density. These results provide a new perspective on Wal-Mart's expansion, providing insights of value to retail practitioners and local government.     

地方集群网络、信息溢出效应与中国ICT产品出口地理网络扩张

研究中国ICT产品的出口贸易扩张有助于理解"全球-地方"互动视角下国际贸易与国内产业地理的相互作用.本文构建地方集群网络和信息溢出效应促进产品出口扩张的机制分析框架,利用2000-2016年中国海关库数据,探究中国ICT产品出口地理网络扩张机制.研究发现:①中国ICT产品出口源地从沿海地区向内陆地区扩张,出口目的地扩张...     

市场间邻近性与广东省出口企业的地理集聚

对外贸易是塑造广东省产业空间分布格局的重要力量,深入地探讨出口贸易与广东省企业集聚的内在联系机制,具有重要意义。本文从出口市场与本地市场之间的多维邻近性角度,为广东省的企业集聚发生机制提供了新的解释,具有一定的理论与政策参考价值。本文认为,企业的出口市场与本地邻近性越低,企业自身越难以远距离地直接获取关于目的市场的出口知识。在这种情况下,企业为了实现出口的成功扩张,其在空间上倾向于集聚分布,以在本地获取相关知识的溢出。基于2000—2016年中国海关进出口贸易数据,本文对广东省出口企业的外部出口市场格局以及内部空间集聚格局进行了描述,并实证测度了企业的出口市场与广东省在地理、经济、文化、政治和制度五个维度上的邻近性与企业地理集聚水平之间的关系。特别地,本文运用DO方法对企业集聚水平进行定量测度,还原了企业集聚的原始微观形态,一定程度上弥补了现有对于集聚水平测度方法的不足。描述性分析表明,一方面,广东省企业的出口市场具有多样化的特点,其扩张一定程度上遵循“邻近性”原则;另一方面,广东省的企业空间分布呈现明显的“核心-边缘”格局。实证结果表明,当出口至与本地在经济、政治和制度三个维度上邻近性较低的市场时,企业在本地更加集聚。市场间地理和文化邻近性对企业集聚水平的影响不显著。同时,该影响效应在出口市场为发达地区和发展中地区的企业样本中具有差异。     

CHANGE IN THE WORLD SYSTEM OF METROPOLISES: THE ROLE OF BUSINESS INTERMEDIARIES

Business intermediaries engaged in the international exchange of capital and commodities (financiers, commodity brokers, wholesalers, corporate head offices) influence the formation of and change in the system of world metropolises through their reactions to competitioh: (1) altering transaction costs, (2) differentiation or dedifferentiation to control markets, and (3) appeal to force. Propositions about intermediary behavior are supported with evidence from the case study literature. These propositions form the basis for a synthesis of the changes in the system of world metropolises.     

我国区域市场研究进展与展望

随着全球经济一体化进程的加快及国内市场的进一步发展,越来越多的学者认识到市场特别是作为现代经济活动载体的区域市场在经济发展中的重要作用。目前我国关于区域市场研究的内容主要包括内涵、成因、结构、机制、扩张模式及其在形成发展过程中的一些不可避免的障碍等,但这些研究多侧重于对发达地区特别是东部沿海地区的研究,而对中东部及农村欠发达地区的研究相对不足;多侧重于区域市场内部的研究,而对区域间的合作研究相对不足。随着我国市场经济的发展及建立全国统一市场的要求,在今后的研究中应加强西部地区及城镇、城乡和区域间合作的研究,并加强定量方法在研究中的应用。     

The Locations of Wal-Mart and Kmart Supercenters: Contrasting Corporate Strategies

Wal-Mart and Kmart, the two largest American discount retailers, have begun to utilize a supercenter retailing format that combines a full-service grocery store with a discount department store. Supercenters are expected to be the major format for future expansion of each of these firms. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the spatial expansion strategies of each firm for the locations of its supercenters. Wal-Mart is quickly expanding its number of supercenters in modest-sized communities clustered around its grocery distribution centers, especially in Southern states. Conversely, most Super Kmart Centers are located inthe suburbs of widely scattered major metropolitan markets, and Kmart has yet to develop a grocery distribution network. Kmart currently has major financial problems that severely restrict the expansion of the Super Kmart Center format.     

Global Dimensions of U.S. Legal Services

The internationalization of the world's producer services has included the steady expansion of legal services across national borders. This article opens with an examination of the supply and demand factors that have driven this process, including the strategies and problems faced by law firms that operate internationally. It then offers an empirical examination of the distribution of overseas legal services offices of the 700 largest U.S. law firms, including their foreign markets and headquarters cities.     

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN U.S. METROPOLITAN AREAS, 1979-1983

Ordinary least-squares multiple regression is used to construct a path diagram showing the direct and indirect effects of corporate location factors on the share of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the 44 largest metropolitan areas in the United States during the period 1979-1983. The results show that the metropolitan areas with the most rapid population growth over the period 1970-1980 correspond to the centers with greater shares of FDI. The growth in Fortune measure, an indicator of the market dynamics of the metropolitan areas, has a direct effect on the level of investment. The growth of employment in manufacturing and in finance, insurance, and real estate, used as indexes of labor supply and of producer services, have indirect effects on FDI. The results show that foreign direct investors tend to concentrate in centers offering strong markets and strong bases of producer services, regardless of their regional locations.     

外部知识环境与内资企业新出口市场开拓

自中国加入WTO以来,出口贸易发展迅速。从出口主体来看,内资企业的出口行为对区域经济增长和中国自身实力的提升尤为重要。建立对外联系、利用外部资源能够有效地促进内资企业拓展海外市场。论文使用中国海关库2001—2011年企业层面的进出口数据,借助条件逻辑回归模型研究地级市尺度上外部知识环境对内资企业开拓新出口市场产生的溢出效应。研究区分了影响内资企业海外市场拓展的3种外部知识环境,内资企业可以：从同一区域的外资企业处获得外部知识;与邻近区域企业形成跨区域联系,获取外部知识;从国外进口获取外部知识。通过对比3种外部知识环境对于地级市尺度内资企业开拓新出口市场的影响,发现：① 3种外部知识环境对内资企业开拓新出口市场均表现出积极作用;本地外资企业出口的溢出效应最大,本地企业进口的溢出效应次之,邻近城市企业出口溢出效应最小;② 中西部地区与东北地区的邻近城市企业出口溢出贡献最大,且3种外部知识环境带来的溢出效应均明显强于东部地区;③ 本地外资企业与邻近城市企业出口溢出对高技术产品的影响明显强于低技术产品。     

Unequal Competition Among Chains of Supercenters: Kmart,Target, and Wal‐Mart

The three largest discount chains, Kmart, Target, and Wal‐Mart, have adopted the supercenter format for expansion. This article examines the locations of and the competition among these supercenters. Wal‐Mart has the greatest number of supercenters and is driving the expansion of the supercenter format. Both Kmart and Target have clustered their supercenters in a small number of metropolitan markets. In contrast to Wal‐Mart and Kmart, Target has focused on a middle‐class rather than a blue‐collar clientele. Now Kmart is struggling following a declaration of bankruptcy. Wal‐Mart has largely defeated its supercenter competitors and now is confronting the major grocery chains for grocery sales.     

Emulating The Celtic Tiger? A Comparison of the Software Industries of Singapore and Ireland

This article explores parallels between the economic development strategies of Ireland and Singapore through a study of the software sector. My central argument is that Singapore's embryonic software industry can learn important lessons from Ireland, which now exports over US$6 billion worth of products annually. Ireland's success has been achieved by attracting two forms of export-oriented foreign direct investment that are increasingly important due to globalisation trends in the software industry: software development centres, and software product manufacturing and localisation (translation and local adaptation) plants. Ireland has benefited from its position on the periphery of Western Europe, one of the largest software markets in the world, to emerge as a key production location for US transnational corporations. Singapore is perhaps now poised, with a similar range of financial, labour market and infrastructural attributes as Ireland, to benefit from rapid growth in the Asia-Pacific software market. Three corporate case studies from Singapore are used to illustrate this argument.     

Mining for change? Youth livelihoods and extractive industry investment in Sierra Leone

Over the past two decades, neoliberal reforms, soaring commodity prices and heightened global resource demands have led to significant growth in extractive industry investment across sub-Saharan Africa. A surge of investment has triggered a variety of responses in mineral-rich communities – from outright rejection, to protest over labour conditions, to acceptance in anticipation of gainful employment. Drawing on recent research carried out in Kono District in Sierra Leone, this article critically explores these contrasting responses to mining activities, by focussing on how youth perceive and respond to extractive industry expansion. In doing so, the paper broadens understanding of why youth perceptions of mining investment differ, and illuminates the various factors underlying a diverse range of responses to the expansion of extractive industries. The focus on youth and its heterogeneity as a social category has important policy implications and the paper makes a contribution to understanding the dynamics and diversity of youth livelihood strategies in resource rich developing countries. In making a distinction between autonomous spaces of community-led development 'from below' and corporate controlled spaces of development 'from above', the article reflects on how youth perceptions of extractive industry expansion may also be influencing the ways in which mining companies understand and fashion their business and social responsibility strategies.     

Foreign Direct Investment in the Czech Republic

This paper evaluates foreign direct investment (FDI) in the Czech Republic and its regional development consequences after the collapse of state socialism. Two types of FDIs are identified: cross border export-oriented investments and market capture investments. The cross border export-oriented investments exploit low cost labor in the service of external markets and are typically concentrated in peripheral areas, mostly along the former West German border. This type of FDI is not likely to contribute to durable regional economies. The market capture investments involve both servicing the Czech market and integrating activities within a larger, multinational corporate network. This type of investment may create more durable sources of regional economic activity. A case study of the Volkswagen/Skoda joint venture is used to examine market capture investments and their consequences for regional development. This paper is based on interviews with plant managers and trade union leaders in companies with foreign investment, governmental officials at the various ministries and state agencies dealing with FDI, and information and data from the secondary sources.