Empirical estimation of isostatic uplift using the lake-tilting method at lake Fegen and lake S?ven, southwestern Sweden

A nonuniform glacio-isostatic uplift results in differential uplift for different parts of a lake. If the lake outlet is situated in the area with the greatest rate of uplift, then the lake will be continuously transgressed. Ancient lake levels can be estimated by dating transgressed peat at different depths in such a lake. Two lakes in southwestern Sweden have been investigated by this method and the course of glacio-isostatic uplift has been determined empirically. The uplift can be expressed by an exponential function through the following formula

Differential glacio-isostatic uplift of crustal blocks at Glen Roy, Scotland

Detailed measurements of the altitudes of the shorelines of former ice-dammed lakes in Glen Roy and vicinity in the Scottish Highlands prove erroneous the conventional view that former shorelines in areas affected by glacio-isostatic uplift are uniformly tilted and/or gently warped. The measurements demonstrate differential uplift of blocks of the earth's crust. The surfaces of some blocks have no detectable tilt whereas others have gradients up to at least 4.6 m/km and are tilted in different directions. In three areas 0.7–2.0 km long, shorelines are distorted by crustal movements; all these areas have landslides attributed to earthquakes that accompanied the release of stress. In the area of greatest local distortion three shorelines rose about 3 m above their average altitudes for the immediately surrounding area, and a fault scarp was produced. Possibly these local distortions accompanied catastrophic lake drainage by jökulhlaup, analogous to crustal movements associated with man-made lakes. A relationship between crustal movement and the limit of a glacial advance is demonstrated. These findings have implications for other parts of the world affected by glacioisostatic uplift.     

Rates of Holocene isostatic uplift and relative sea-level lowering of the Baltic in SW Finland based on studies of isolation contacts

Southwestern Finland was covered by the Weichselian ice sheet and experienced rapid glacio-isostatic rebound after early Holocene deglaciation. The present mean overall apparent uplift rate is of the order of 4-5 mm/yr, but immediately after deglaciation the rate of crustal rebound was several times higher. Concurrently with land uplift, relative sea level in the Baltic basin during the past more than 8000 years was also strongly affected by the eustatic changes in sea level. There is ample evidence from earlier studies that during the early Litorina Sea stage on the southeastern coast of Finland around 7000 yr BP (7800 cal. yr BP), the rise in sea level exceeded the rate of land uplift, resulting in a short-lived transgression. Because of a higher rate of uplift, the transgression was even more short-lived or of negligible magnitude in the southwestern part of coastal Finland, but even in this latter case a slowing down in the rate of regression can still be detected. We used evidence from isolation basins to obtain a set of 71 ¹⁴C dates, and over 30 new sea-level index points. The age-elevation data, obtained from lakes in two different areas and located between c. 64 m and 1.5 m above present sea level, display a high degree of internal consistency. This suggests that the dates are reliable, even though most of them were based on bulk sediment samples. The two relative sea-level curves confirm the established model of relatively gradually decreasing rates of relative sea-level lowering since c. 6100 yr BP (7000 cal. yr BP) and clearly indicate that the more northerly of the two study areas experienced the higher rate of glacio-isostatic recovery. In the southerly study area, changes in diatom assemblages and lithostratigraphy suggest that during the early Litorina Sea stage (8300-7600 cal. yr BP) eustatic sea-level rise exceeded land uplift for hundreds of years. Evidence for this transgression was discovered in a lake with a basin threshold at an elevation of 41 m above sea level, which is markedly higher than any previously known site with evidence for the Litorina transgression in Finland. We also discuss evidence for subsequent short-term fluctuations superimposed on the main trends of relative sea-level changes.     

Geomorphology,geology and palaeohydrology of the broad alluvial valleys of the Salt River System,Western Australia

The Salt River System forms the connection between the saline lakes of the Yilgarn River catchment in the east and the rejuvenated Avon River System in the west. Judging from the age of the deposits in the palaeochannels of the Salt River after the Darling uplift and from the deltaic deposits of the river before the uplift, it appears that the river has been occupying this same course since the Early Tertiary. The uplift dammed the course of the river and caused the formation of large inland lakes. The inland lake at Yenyening persisted for a long time until the opening of the northern outlet of the Avon. This explains the absence of sedimentary deposits from the Avon in the Perth Basin during the closure time. The relatively thick sediments that fill up the palaeochannels comprise three formations of the Salt River Group: South Caroline Clay, Yenyening Formation and Quairading Sandstone. The reconstruction of the palaeoriver showed that the river was occupying a steep gorge about 70 m deep with a slope of about 0.35 m km^‐1.     

Allerød- Younger Dryas sea level changes in southwestern Sweden and their relation to the Baltic Ice Lake development

Mt. Kroppefjall is situated just south of the Middle Swedish (Younger Dryas) ice-marginal zone. Its abundance of lake basins makes it very suitable for detailed shore displacement studies close to the Younger Dryas ice margin. Altogether 12 lakes at altitudes between 157 and 78 m were studied and all but one situated above the marine limit contained marine sediments. The dating of their isolation from the sea resulted in a shore displacement curve from c. 11,200 to c. 98M)BP. The relative uplift almost ceased between 10,900 and 10,300 BP, which is mainly related to an ice readvance in the Lake Vanern basin. This period of balance between uplift and sea level rise was preceded by a relative uplift rate of 5 m/lW yr and followed by as high rates as 7–8 m/100 yr, possibly caused by a delayed uplift effect and perhaps also a local fall in sea level caused by the rapidly receding ice margin. The time difference between the formation of two delta surfaces at Odskolts Moar is estimated at 60&800 years. Shoreline diagrams along the Swedish west and east coasts, mainly based on a number of shore displacement curves, reveal large anomalies that are believed to have been caused by dammings and drainages of the Baltic basin. The southwards extrapolated shorelines indicate that the bedrock threshold in the Oresund Strait, between Denmark and Sweden, functioned as the outlet threshold for the Baltic Ice Lake during its dammed stages, while the erosion of the Store Balt and Darss Sill straits began at the culmination of the Ancylus transgression and continued during the rapid IS20 m Ancylus regression.     

Hydrogeochemical methods for base metal exploration in the northern Canadian shield

The use of lake waters for base metal exploration has been studied in the northern part of the Slave Geological Province of the Canadian Shield. The area is north of the treeline, within the zone of continuous permafrost, and, like most other regions of the Shield, has a high density of small lakes.A regional sampling of 1218 lakes established that less than 2 ppb (μg/l) Zn or Cu is typical of waters from unmineralized terrane. These samples had a median pH of 6.8 and a median specific conductivity of 19.5 μmhos. Lake waters were also taken from the areas surrounding five massive sulphide occurrences: High Lake, Canoe Lake, Takiyuak Lake, Hackett River and Agricola Lake. In all cases there are unambiguous anomalies for Zn. Anomalies are also present for Cu, but are less intense and extensive. This difference between the two elements is related to the superior mobility of Zn in surface waters and its more consistent presence as a major constituent of massive sulphides.A water sampling apparatus has been developed and tested on a light turbine helicopter. Using this, thirty sites may be sampled each hour when sampling at a density of 1 site per 2.8 km². Measurement of pH, conductivity and water temperature are recorded in the helicopter during sampling.A number of factors have been investigated that may influence the utility of lake water sampling for base metal exploration:

1. (1) Seasonal variability, while present to moderate degree, is unlikely to hinder application of the method.

2. (2) For the size of lakes sampled (2 km² or less), elements are homogeneously distributed across the lake surface during the ice-free season. During the initial period of break-up there are marked variations in element content around the ice-free lake margin. Sampling during this period may help define the source of metals for anomalous lakes.

3. (3) Study of sample preservation suggests that mobile elements, such as Zn, that are stable in solution within lakes, are also relatively stable when untreated water is stored in plastic bottles.

4. (4) Care must be taken to avoid contamination of the samples, particularly from the bottle.

The areal extent of lake water base metal anomalies appears to be less than equivalent lake sediment anomalies. Thus for wide-interval, regional geochemical reconnaissance, lake sediment sampling is the method of choice. Lake waters are an appropriate medium for detailed exploration of areas of interest, such as volcanic belts. For this application, the principal attractions are rapid sampling rates, and hence low costs, high contrast anomalies, and a uniform sampling medium.     

The lateglacial lakes of Glens Roy,Spean and vicinity (Lochaber district,Scottish Highlands)

This paper summarises the evidence for glacial ice advance into lower Glen Spean during the Loch Lomond Stadial which involved the blockage of westward-flowing drainage to form a series of ice-dammed lakes, the former surfaces of which are marked by prominent shorelines. Detailed mapping of glacigenic landforms and instrumental levelling of the shorelines reveals a dynamic interplay between the glacier margins and lake formation. Subsequent deglaciation led to lowering of the lake levels, at times by catastrophic drainage beneath the ice (jökulhlaup). The abandoned shorelines have been warped and dislocated in numerous places as a result of glacio-isostatic deformation, faulting and landslip activity. The pattern of retreat of the ice can be deduced from the mapped distributions of retreat moraines and the levelled altitudes of numerous kame and fluvial terrace fragments. The sequence of events outlined in this paper provides important context for understanding the evolution of the landscape of the Glen Roy area during the Loch Lomond Stadial, and a prelude to more recent studies reported in other contributions to this thematic issue.     

Overbank sedimentation rates in former channel lakes: characterization and control factors

Overbank sedimentation rates were studied in former channels of three rivers in south-eastern France. Depth and spatial distribution of sediment, as well as geometry, hydrological connectivity and age of 39 lakes, were both measured and calculated. The mean sedimentation rate of lakes varied between 0 and 2·57 cm year⁻¹. Sedimentation rates are linked to water depth and often undergo a decreasing gradient from the downstream outlet to the inner part of the lake. Multiple regression modelling demonstrates that sediment depth is essentially a function of overbank flow frequency. The greater the difference between upstream and downstream overbank flow frequency, the faster the sedimentation rate. These differences in sedimentation rates also correspond to different former channel geometry: the rates are slower in narrow and straight channels (former braided, and point-bar backwater channels), and faster in large and sinuous channels (exhibiting meanders, anastomosing channels and coves). The suspended sediment flux is variable from one reach to another, the middle reach of the Rhône conveying more sediment than the upper reaches, the Doubs or the Ain reaches. The suspended sediment flux does not explain a statistical difference in lake sedimentation rates between the reaches, which also provide clear evidence of the importance of local connectivity controls. Sedimentation patterns were also complicated by temporal changes in lake connectivity associated with geomorphological or anthropogenic changes operating within the main channel.     

Recent estuarine sedimentation rates from shallow inter-tidal environments in western Scotland: implications for future sea-level trends and coastal wetland development

During the mid-late Holocene large sections of the Scottish coastline have been characterized by falling relative sea-levels resulting from differential glacio-isostatic uplift of this region of northern Britain. The complex interplay between crustal and sea-level movements continues to influence the morphological development of the Scottish coast. A number of geophysical models predict ongoing uplift of the Scottish landmass. However, a number of recent studies based upon the analysis of satellite altimetry data indicate a late 20th Century acceleration in the rate of eustatic sea-level rise.Detailed geochemistry, radiometric dating, and diatom analysis on selected sediment cores from four mature coastal marsh environments in Argyll, western Scotland, provides an opportunity to investigate the linkages between Twentieth century crustal movements, eustatic sea-level rise and recent rates of sedimentation recorded within marsh sediments across the proposed Scottish glacio-isostatic uplift dome.Solid-phase major and trace element geochemistry has been used to examine the extent to which post-depositional physical disturbance and/or chemical reactions may have influenced the reliability of the radiometric dating methods. Geochemical data indicate that the evolution of these marsh environments has not been significantly influenced by physical disturbance and overall the supply of minerogenic material to the marshes has been quite uniform.Vertical distributions of ²¹⁰Pb_excess and ¹³⁷Cs activity have been measured and used to develop models of recent marsh vertical accretion. Dating of the cores reveals subtle variations in the rates of sediment accumulation over the last c. 70 years between sites. For much of the last hundred years or so, sedimentation rates have been in good overall agreement with various estimations for sea-level rise, although at the more easterly sites these estimates are generally exceeded. However, quasi-equilibrium between marsh sedimentation and sea-level rise for much of the Twentieth Century is indicated from the Diatom analysis.Over the most recent period of marsh development (<10 years), a significant increase in the rate of surface sedimentation is recorded at all sites across the study area. Diatom analysis of these surface layers reveals an increase in the relative abundance of marine (polyhalobous) taxa in the near-surface sediments. This signifies a very recent increase in the rate of regional relative sea-level rise indicating that a regional threshold in coastal forcing has now been exceeded.These findings provide clear evidence that recent relative sea-level rise is now outpacing estimated rates of glacio-isostatic adjustment (GIA) across the proposed Scottish uplift dome.     

Glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst flood in a Himalayan basin using remote sensing and GIS

Glacial hazards relate to hazards associated with glaciers and glacial lakes in high mountain areas and their impacts downstream. The climatic change/variability in recent decades has made considerable impacts on the glacier life cycle in the Himalayan region. As a result, many big glaciers melted, forming a large number of glacial lakes. Due to an increase in the rate at which ice and snow melted, the accumulation of water in these lakes started increasing. Sudden discharge of large volumes of water with debris from these lakes potentially causes glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in valleys downstream. Outbursts from glacier lakes have repeatedly caused the loss of human lives as well as severe damage to local infrastructure. Monitoring of the glacial lakes and extent of GLOF impact along the downstream can be made quickly and precisely using remote sensing technique. A number of hydroelectric projects in India are being planned in the Himalayan regions. It has become necessary for the project planners and designers to account for the GLOF also along with the design flood for deciding the spillway capacity of projects. The present study deals with the estimation of GLOF for a river basin located in the Garwhal Himalaya, India. IRS LISSIII data of the years 2004, 2006 and 2008 have been used for glacial lake mapping, and a total of 91 lakes have been found in the year 2008, and out of these, 45 lakes are having area more than 0.01?km². All the lakes have been investigated for vulnerability for potential bursting, and it was found that no lake is vulnerable from GLOF point of view. The area of biggest lake is 0.193, 0.199 and 0.203?km² in the years 2004, 2006 and 2008, respectively. Although no lake is potentially hazardous, GLOF study has been carried out for the biggest lake using MIKE 11 software. A flood of 100-year return period has been considered in addition to GLOF. The flood peak at catchment outlet comes out to be 993.74, 1,184.0 and 1,295.58 cumec due to GLOF; 3,274.74, 3,465.0 and 3,576.58 cumec due to GLOF; and 100-year return flood together considering breach width of 40, 60 and 80?m, respectively.     

Continental/Cordilleran ice interactions: a dominant cause of westward super-elevation of the last glacial maximum continental ice limit in southwestern Alberta, Canada

In southwestern Alberta, Canada, a westward-rising last-glacial-maximum continental ice limit has been identified. This limit is defined by the upper elevation of Canadian Shield erratics deposited by last-glacial-maximum continental ice along the flanks of prominent ridges and buttes within the region. The interpolation between ice-limit data points has produced two distinct slope profiles: 2.9 m/km to the east, and 4.2 m/km to the west of Mokowan Butte. Three hypotheses are proposed to explain this westward rise of the last-glacial-maximum continental ice limit: (1) regional tectonic uplift, (2) glacio-isostatic uplift, and (3) continental ice-flow convergence due to topographic obstacles and interaction with montane ice. Inferred long-term rates of tectonic uplift and glacio-isostatic modelling show that these two mechanisms account for less than 25% of the observed absolute elevation increase of the limit between the Del Bonita uplands and Cloudy Ridge in southwestern Alberta. The remaining rise in elevation of the continental ice-sheet margin in this region is thought to result from continental ice-flow convergence due to the combined effects of the regional topography and interaction with montane glaciers to the west. The steeper rise in the former continental ice surface west of Mokowan Butte can be explained by the topographic obstruction and interaction with montane glaciers in the area of the Rocky Mountain front.     

Reinterpretation of the exposed record of the last two cycles of Lake Bonneville, Western United States

A substantially modified history of the last two cycles of Lake Bonneville is proposed. The Bonneville lake cycle began prior to 26,000 yr B.P.; the lake reached the Bonneville shoreline about 16,000 yr B.P. Poor dating control limits our knowledge of the timing of subsequent events. Lake level was maintained at the Bonneville shoreline until about 15,000 yr B.P., or somewhat later, when catastrophic downcutting of the outlet caused a rapid drop of 100 m. The Provo shoreline was formed as rates of isostatic uplift due to this unloading slowed. By 13,000 yr B.P., the lake had fallen below the Provo level and reached one close to that of Great Salt Lake by 11,000 yr B.P. Deposits of the Little Valley lake cycle are identified by their position below a marked unconformity and by amino acid ratios of their fossil gastropods. The maximum level of the Little Valley lake was well below the Bonneville shoreline. Based on degree of soil development and other evidence, the Little Valley lake cycle may be equivalent in age to marine oxygenisotope stage 6. The proposed lake history has climatic implications for the region. First, because the fluctuations of Lake Bonneville and Lake Lahontan during the last cycle of each were apparently out of phase, there may have been significant local differences in the timing and character of late Pleistocene climate changes in the Great Basin. Second, although the Bonneville and Little Valley lake cycles were broadly synchronous with maximum episodes of glaciation, environmental conditions necessary to generate large lakes did not exist during early Wisconsin time.     

食盐析出实验对盐湖盆地沉积研究的启示

将物理模拟实验结果与地震、岩芯资料相结合,对东濮凹陷盐岩沉积的古地理位置、成因机制提出新的认识。研究认为:洼陷带的边缘、中央隆起带等浅水部位是盐岩沉积较早的部位,可以沉积厚度大、粒度小的单盐层,而靠近湖盆中心,矿物结晶时间充分,沉积的盐岩粒度大,单盐层厚度可大可小,甚至可以缺失,盐岩沉积的古地理位置受古盐度影响明显;盐湖盆地绝大多部分地区,湖水有一定深度时便已形成湖底盐层,湖水变浅时盐层已具备一定厚度,保证了其下部泥页岩的还原环境,盐岩沉积后基本保持了原有的构造形态,其上可以再次接受泥页岩沉积;湖盆边缘的渗滤带在湖水退去以后仍可以沉积盐岩,该处盐层最薄、粒度细小,下部地层常见氧化环境标志。     

用137Cs计年法确定湖泊沉积物沉积速率研究进展

137Cs计年法利用137Cs固有的理化和沉降特性,在湖泊沉积物的137Cs垂直分布与大气137Cs沉降间确立对应关系,找出有异常137Cs含量的沉积层作为时标,但需注意137Cs从水体表面至湖底的时间和粘粒含量对各层137Cs含量的影响,并用其它方法校验时标的可靠性。再求取不同时标层间的年均沉积厚度,或因克服了压实效应而更能反映真实沉积速率的年均沉积通量,且结合GIS等手段进一步估算湖泊各区域的沉积总量;还可延伸研究湖泊内源污染负荷及相关环境演变和湖泊演化。但是,沉积柱样的分割厚度取多少才能既满足计年精度要求又不使工作量过大,137Cs的大气沉降时间与进入沉积物时间还与泥沙的陆地迁移时间有关,沉积物中究竟是否发生137Cs下渗及其机理等都还是此法应用中有待解决的问题。     

Holocene lake development and glacial-isostatic uplift at Lake Skallen and Lake Oyako,Lützow-Holm Bay,East Antarctica: Based on biogeochemical facies and molecular signatures

The paleolimnology of two lakes which were isolated as a result of the crustal uplift during the late Holocene along the Soya Coast, Lützow-Holm Bay, East Antarctica were studied. The focus was on temporal variations in the biogeochemical composition of sediment cores recovered from Lake Skallen at Skallen and Lake Oyako at Skarvsnes. Both sets of lake sediments record environmental changes associated with a transition from marine to lacustrine settings, as indicated by analyses of C and N contents, nitrogen isotopic compositions (δ¹⁵N), and major element concentrations. Changes in the dominant primary producers during the marine–lacustrine transition (marine diatom to cyanobacteria) at L. Skallen was clearly revealed by biogenic opal-A, diatom assemblages, and molecular signature from denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) with 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene analysis. Radiocarbon dating of acid-insoluble organic C suggested that the environmental transition from marine to fresh water occurred at 2940 ± 100 cal yr BP at L. Skallen and 1060 ± 90 cal yr BP at L. Oyako. Based on these data, a mean crustal uplift rate of 3.2 mm yr⁻¹ is inferred for the history of marine–lacustrine transition via brackish conditions. The geological setting causing glacio-isostatic uplift was the primary factor in controlling the transition event in sedimentary and biological facies.     

模型揭示的浅水湖泊稳态转换影响因素分析

富营养化会导致浅水湖泊发生稳态转换,生态系统服务严重受损。磷是驱动湖泊发生稳态转换的重要环境因子,探究湖水磷浓度的变化规律是湖泊管理的关键。通过磷动力学模型,从影响湖水磷浓度的主要参数入手,探讨了每种参数变化对磷浓度的具体影响。结合前人研究结果,详细讨论了不同类型气候变化和人类活动对湖泊稳态转换时间、滞后时长、修复速率等的影响。研究认为,气候变化所导致的温度升高、光强减弱、风浪增强等和人类活动所导致的生物扰动、水位波动增强等因素变化虽不会改变湖泊稳态转换突变时间,但会推迟湖泊修复时间,造成突变阈值减小,滞后时间延长,稳态增大。在湖泊保护中要重点考虑主要外力驱动对湖泊稳态转换过程影响的区别,避免有害突变的发生。     

Palaeogeographic reconstruction of proglacial lakes in Estonia

This paper describes a Geographical Information System (GIS)-based palaeogeographic reconstruction of the development of proglacial lakes formed during deglaciation in Estonia, and examines their common features and relations with the Baltic Ice Lake. Ice marginal positions, interpolated proglacial lake water levels and a digital terrain model were used to reconstruct the spatial distribution and bathymetry of the proglacial lakes. Our results suggest that the proglacial lakes formed a bay of the Baltic Ice Lake after the halt at the Pandivere-Neva ice margin about 13.3 cal. kyr BP. Shoreline reconstruction suggests that two major proglacial lake systems, one in eastern and the other in western Estonia, were connected via a strait and thus had identical water levels. The water budget calculations show that the strait was able to transfer a water volume several times greater than the melting glacier could produce. As this strait compensated for the water level difference between the two lake parts, the subsequent further merging in north Estonia did not result in catastrophic drainage, as has been proposed.     

Palaeoecology of two lake basins from Disko,West Greenland

The macrofossils, lithology and chronology of two lake basins on Disko in central West Greenland have been investigated. Both lakes were isolated from the sea in the mid-Holocene as a result of relative land uplift. A marine-brackish-limnic sequence was recovered from the Qivittut Lake. The marine fauna is unusually diverse, whereas the brackish water fauna consists only of few species. Immediately after isolation the lake passed through a short-lived eutrophic phase, after which stable, mesotrophic conditions were established. From the second lake basin, the Fortunebay Lake, only limnic sediments were recovered. This lake record demonstrates that rather stable conditions have persisted since mid-Holocene times. Both lakes show anomalously high accumulation rates.     

Late-Holocene shore displacement of the Finnish south coast: diatom, litho- and chemostratigraphic evidence from three isolation basins

Lake isolation studies provide the most reliable method for reconstructing the shore displacement history of the areas affected by postglacial isostatic land uplift. Due to the slow uplift rate and the presence of numerous lakes, the Finnish south coast is one of the key areas for investigating the Litorina transgression and subsequent shore displacement history of the Baltic. To reconstruct the relative sea-level dynamics during the late Holocene, three small lakes from the critical altitudes were analysed concerning their diatom, sulphate-sulphur, and sodium stratigraphies and loss-on-ignition values. Comparisons of the records indicate that the availability of nutrients significantly influenced the diatom-floristic patterns during the lake isolation. In particular, the mass occurrence of Fragilaria spp. seems to be associated with high values of sulphate-sulphur and sodium during and after isolation. On the basis of the new and old data, a shore displacement curve for the 30 m Litorina isobase is compiled. This indicates that since the clear Litorina transgression at 7500-6500 ¹⁴C BP, no transgressions have taken place but that the shore displacement in the area has been a stable process. The occurrence of a number of raised shore formations between the altitude of the major Litorina shore and the present sea level in south Finland can be attributed to the erosion of soft soil layers by the high-energy wave action on the exposed shore sections.