A Comparative Analysis of Pillar Design Methods and its Application to Marble Mines

Summary. The methods for designing pillars in underground mines are fundamentally based on empirical formulae that do not take into account the quality of the rock mass as an input parameter. This makes them difficult to apply in other types of ground that are different to those used to establish each empirical formula. To avoid this inconvenience, the present paper examines existing empirical formulae to then propose a modification of these formulae adjusting the resistance of the pillars on the basis of the RMR (Bieniawski’s Rock Mass Rating). The compression safety factor of the pillars is analyzed for each modified formula and a study is carried out of shear failure if planes of weakness exist in the pillars. Finally, the safety factors of the pillars in a marble mine situated in Alicante (Southern Spain) were calculated in order to validate the new formulae. From the results obtained, it is concluded that this new formulation determines the safety factor of pillars of the mine with greater reliability, provided that the pillars are isolated. At the same time, the introduction of the RMR in the formulae results in a better fit of the strength of each pillar to the characteristics of the rock mass.     

Prediction of surface crown pillar stability using artificial neural networks

A relatively novel technique, artificial neural networks (ANN), is used in predicting the stability of crown pillars left over large excavations. Data for the training and verification of the networks were obtained from the literature. Four artificial networks, based on two different architectures, were used. The networks used different numbers of input parameters to predict the stability or failure of crown pillars. Multi‐layer perceptron networks using mine type, dip of orebody, overburden thickness, pillar thickness, pillar length, stope height, backfill height, Rock Mass Rating (RMR) of the host rock and RMR of the orebody showed excellent performance in training and verification. Adding three more variables, namely pillar width, rock density and pillar thickness to width ratio, showed symptoms of over‐learning without degrading performance significantly. Radial basis function networks were capable of predicting crown pillar behaviour on the basis of few input functions. It was shown that mine type, dip and pillar thickness to width ratio can be used for a preliminary estimation of stability. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于尖点突变模型与D-S证据融合理念的地下矿山岩体失稳预警方法

地下矿山岩体失稳预警一直是矿山灾害防治研究的重要课题。为了提高岩体失稳预警的准确性和可靠性,本文提出一种基于尖点突变理论和D-S证据融合理论的综合性预警方法。首先通过建立尖点突变分析模型和D-S证据融合模型得到两种独立预警判据。然后借助风险矩阵融合两种独立预警判据形成综合性预警判据。最后利用矿山实测的微震数据分别对三种预警判据的预警效果进行检验。结果表明:尖点突变模型对岩体失稳的预警效果较差;D-S证据融合模型的鲁棒性较差;综合性预警判据的预警结果与工程实际高度吻合且鲁棒性较好,预测准确性和可靠度明显提高。     

An Integrated Numerical Modelling–Discrete Fracture Network Approach Applied to the Characterisation of Rock Mass Strength of Naturally Fractured Pillars

Naturally fractured mine pillars provide an excellent example of the importance of accurately determining rock mass strength. Failure in slender pillars is predominantly controlled by naturally occurring discontinuities, their influence diminishing with increasing pillar width, with wider pillars failing through a combination of brittle and shearing processes. To accurately simulate this behaviour by numerical modelling, the current analysis incorporates a more realistic representation of the mechanical behaviour of discrete fracture systems. This involves realistic simulation and representation of fracture networks, either as individual entities or as a collective system of fracture sets, or a combination of both. By using an integrated finite element/discrete element–discrete fracture network approach it is possible to study the failure of rock masses in tension and compression, along both existing pre-existing fractures and through intact rock bridges, and incorporating complex kinematic mechanisms. The proposed modelling approach fully captures the anisotropic and inhomogeneous effects of natural jointing and is considered to be more realistic than methods relying solely on continuum or discontinuum representation. The paper concludes with a discussion on the development of synthetic rock mass properties, with the intention of providing a more robust link between rock mass strength and rock mass classification systems.     

Floor design in underground coal mines

Summary Floor failure and excessive heave in underground coal mines can jeopardize the stability of the whole structure, including the roof and pillars, due to differential settlements and redistribution of stress concentrations. Besides, floor failure is detrimental to haulageway operation and can lead to unacceptable conditions of high deformation. Thus, the design of any underground opening must consider roof/pillar and floor as one structural system.This paper presents guidelines for the design of mine floors, including the necessary field and laboratory investigations and the determination of the bearing capacity of floor strata. The design methodology is based essentially on a modified Hoek-Brown rock mass strength criterion. The main modifications are the introduction of the concept of the point of critical energy release to account for the long term strength, the inclusion of tensile strength and the adoption of a lithostatic state of stress in the rock mass. The determination of the dimensionless parametersm ands result from correlations with the RMR (rock mass rating) of the Geomechanics Clasification. Nine case histories, both in longwall and room and pillar coal mining, were analyzed with the proposed methodology.     

基于广义Hoek-Brown准则的岩体等效强度

为了更方便地求出岩体的等价粘聚力C和摩擦角φ,基于Hoek-Brown准则与RMR法岩体质量分级,求出不同RMR值下的C和φ,拟合出C和φ的折减系数关于RMR值的变化曲线。结果表明:对于质量等级较好的岩体,根据RMR值可以分别求得岩体的C和φ的折减系数,对已知岩石的C和φ值进行折减,求得岩体的C和φ值。岩体的C值随岩石单轴抗压强度成线性正相关,岩体的φ值不随单轴抗压强度变化而变化。C和φ的折减系数不随岩石的单轴抗压强度变化而变化,只与岩体RMR值有关。      

花岗岩隧道脆性破坏的温度效应研究

目前深埋硬岩隧道的岩爆等脆性破坏研究还较少考虑到温度的作用效应。采用精细网格数值模型,提出热-脆性-精细力学计算方法,应用能反映高地应力下硬岩脆性破坏特点的岩体劣化模型,结合能量计算指标,开展了不同温度作用下隧道硬岩脆性破坏的热力耦合分析。以瑞典APSE花岗岩隧洞岩柱为例,进行不同地温下隧道破坏区、能量释放值和应力指标的定量化对比研究。研究结果表明,隧道地温的增加将使岩体产生附加温度应力,进而增大其脆性破坏程度,计算结果与隧道现场的破坏规律基本一致。热-脆性-精细力学计算能合理描述硬岩的损伤和渐进破坏过程,计算结果较好地揭示了花岗岩等硬岩深埋隧道脆性破坏的温度作用效应,对于高应力、高地温下深部工程的稳定性评价具有指导意义。     

Joint Frequency in the Rock Mass Rating 2014 Classification System Based on Field P-wave Propagation Velocity Tests: A New Rating Method

The joint frequency rating index accounts for 40% of the weight in the hundred-mark Rock Mass Rating 2014 (RMR14) classification system. However, owning to the natural variations of in-situ rock mass, this parameter is difficult for site engineers to obtain along the tunnel axis, especially in groundwater-rich conditions or prior to any disturbances made to rock mass. In this study, we propose an equivalent joint frequency, expressed quantitatively in terms of the ratio of the P-wave propagation velocity in the rock mass to that of the intact rocks, which is mainly based on engineering statistics easily obtained from the Chinese National Standard, GB/T 50218. We also explore a new rating method, based on field P-wave propagation velocity tests, for the joint frequency in the RMR14 classification system. Literature from in-situ databases is discussed to verify the applicability of the proposed rating method. The verifications demonstrate that, compared with the results of on-site parameters ratings as per the RMR classification system, the new rating method using P-wave propagation velocity can obtain a certain degree of accuracy. Hence, this enables the presentation of the primary state of integrity of an in-situ rock mass in accordance with the RMR14 classification system, through simple and non-destructive field P-wave velocity tests.

     

Energy characterization based assessment of pillar recovery

A number of pillars are left developed in some of the Chinese metal mines due to careless mining and lack of proper planning. There are pillars in such mines which do not contribute much in supporting the covered rock mass. Re-exploitation of these standing (non-supporting) pillars can be an efficient method for resource recovery if the remaining pillars ensure the stability of the covered host rock. In this study, a tungsten mine in Jiangxi Province, China, was chosen as a case for studying this pillar recovery scheme. Based on accurate in situ stress measurement data in the original and disturbed host rock, the storage energy in the rock mass could be estimated by numerical simulation methods. After comparing the storage energy to the sum of the fractured energy consumption and friction energy consumption (obtained from lab tests), the recyclable pillars can be identified by a cyclic judgment programming process.     

Improved RMR Rock Mass Classification Using Artificial Intelligence Algorithms

Rock mass classification systems such as rock mass rating (RMR) are very reliable means to provide information about the quality of rocks surrounding a structure as well as to propose suitable support systems for unstable regions. Many correlations have been proposed to relate measured quantities such as wave velocity to rock mass classification systems to limit the associated time and cost of conducting the sampling and mechanical tests conventionally used to calculate RMR values. However, these empirical correlations have been found to be unreliable, as they usually overestimate or underestimate the RMR value. The aim of this paper is to compare the results of RMR classification obtained from the use of empirical correlations versus machine-learning methodologies based on artificial intelligence algorithms. The proposed methods were verified based on two case studies located in northern Iran. Relevance vector regression (RVR) and support vector regression (SVR), as two robust machine-learning methodologies, were used to predict the RMR for tunnel host rocks. RMR values already obtained by sampling and site investigation at one tunnel were taken into account as the output of the artificial networks during training and testing phases. The results reveal that use of empirical correlations overestimates the predicted RMR values. RVR and SVR, however, showed more reliable results, and are therefore suggested for use in RMR classification for design purposes of rock structures.     

Empirical and numerical analyses of support requirements for a diversion tunnel at the Boztepe dam site, eastern Turkey

This paper presents the engineering geological properties and support design of a planned diversion tunnel at the Boztepe dam site that contains units of basalt and tuffites. Empirical, theoretical and numerical approaches were used and compared in this study focusing on tunnel design safety. Rock masses at the site were characterized using three empirical methods, namely rock mass rating (RMR), rock mass quality (Q) and geological strength index (GSI). The RMR, Q and GSI ratings were determined by using field data and the mechanical properties of intact rock samples were evaluated in the laboratory. Support requirements were proposed accordingly in terms of different rock mass classification systems. The convergence–confinement method was used as the theoretical approach. Support systems were also analyzed using a commercial software based on the finite element method (FEM). The parameters calculated by empirical methods were used as input parameters for the FEM analysis. The results from the two methods were compared with each other. This comparison suggests that a more reliable and safe design could be achieved by using a combination of empirical, analytical and numerical approaches.     

Engineering geological assessment of the proposed Uru Dam, Turkey

This paper describes the results of the engineering geological investigations and rock mechanics studies carried out at the proposed Uru Dam site. Analyses were carried out in terms of rock mass classifications for diversion tunnel, kinematic analysis of excavation slopes, permeability of the dam foundation and determination of rock mass strength parameters.Uru Dam is a rock-filled dam with upstream concrete slab. The dam will be built on the Suveri River in the central part of Turkey. The foundation rocks are volcanic rocks, which consist of andesite, basalt and tuff of Neogene Age. Studies were carried out both at the field and the laboratory. Field studies include engineering geological mapping, intensive discontinuity surveying, core drilling, pressurized water tests and sampling for laboratory testing.Uniaxial, triaxial and tensile strength tests were performed and deformation parameters, unit weight and porosity were determined on the intact rock specimens in the laboratory. Rock mass strength and modulus of elasticity of rock mass are determined using the Hoek–Brown empirical strength criterion. Rock mass classifications have been performed according to RMR and Q systems for the diversion tunnel.Engineering geological assessment of the proposed dam and reservoir area indicated that there will be no foundation stability problems. Detailed geotechnical investigations are required for the final design of the dam.     

Proposed support design, Kaletepe tunnel, Turkey

In this paper, preliminary support design of Kaletepe tunnel, located on Bilecik-Istanbul highway, Turkey, was analyzed by empirical and numerical methods. The rock mass rating (RMR) and rock mass quality (Q) systems were employed for empirical rock mass quality determination. Numerical analysis for the stress–strain distribution of the tunnel excavation and support systems was also carried out. The applied support performance was investigated at different sections of the tunnel route. It was seen that empirical and numerical approaches showed similar results. This indicates that when the empirical method is supported by numerical method, the preliminary support design will be more reliable.     

Comparisons of Evaluation Factors and Application Effects of the New [BQ]<Subscript>GSI</Subscript> System with International Rock Mass Classification Systems

The basic quality (BQ) system is regarded as the national rock mass classification system that can be appropriate for use in most types of rock engineering in China. Two underlying parameters that the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and the rock intactness index (K_V) are taken into account to access the basic BQ value. However, The K_V was usually measured by an indirect acoustic wave approach which often cannot reflected the actual conditions. In this study, a direct measured parameter K_GSI is recommended to obtain by means of the GSI system to replace the original K_V, and a new method [BQ]_GSI expressed by the new parameter K_GSI is proposed. In particular, a graphic method is also presented to determine rapidly and rationally the rock mass classification by the X, Y coordinates of the UCS and the K_GSI. In order to further compare the evaluation results and application effects between the [BQ]_GSI and the international rock mass classification systems, a comprehensive solution is carried out. First, the evaluation factors of rock mass qualities from all these system are classified according to three groups: the rock mass inherent parameters, external parameters, and construction parameters. Second, the correlations among these evaluation factors in the new [BQ]_GSI system and the common international systems (i.e. RMR, Q, and RMi) were compared. And the formulas or charts among the three groups are presented. Finally, five hydropower underground excavations are chosen to analysis the comparison results of the [BQ]_GSI system and the international common RMR, Q, or RMi systems. The applicability scope of these international RMR, Q, or RMi systems is also discussed in the context of China’s rock characteristics and geological stress conditions.     

Strike stabilizing pillars as a regional support strategy for ultra-deep gold mines

Strike stabilizing pillars are included in the mine layout of a number of deep South African gold mines as a means of providing regional support with the principal aim of controlling rockbursts. Large seismic events associated with stabilizing pillars can cause extensive damage to working areas. Mining-induced seismicity recorded at Western Deep Levels Limited has been analysed in an attempt to improve the design of stabilizing pillars, and thereby reduce their associated seismic hazard. This work revealed that the vast majority of stabilizing pillars, regardless of their dimensions and those of their adjacent stopes, will, at some time, give rise to seismic events of magnitude, M2. Contrary to expectations, this work strongly indicates that the rock mass in the near vicinity of the mined out areas does not behave in an elastic manner. Consequently, the currently employed design methodologies, based on elastic principles, should not provide the only criteria when designing strike stabilizing pillars.     

Design guidelines and instrumentation for in-situ stress and rock discontinuity conditions in coal mines

This paper discusses rock engineering criteria suggested for the design of mine openings on the basis of in-situ stress regime and rock discontinuity conditions. The criteria are based on documented experience for underground civil works in the U.S. and abroad. The relevance of the criteria is demonstrated by reference to selected coal mine examples in Utah and West Virginia. Field instrumentation suitable for the measurement of in-situ stress and for monitoring mine response to stress and rock discontinuity conditions is also discussed from experience at deep, underground coal mines in Colorado, Utah, and West Virginia. Instrumentation for in-situ stress includes the hydraulic fracturing techniques and the overcoring technique; for mine response, instrumentation includes electric, vibrating wire stressmeters in pillars and rock extensometers in mine roofs.     

Stability Analysis and the Stabilisation of Flexural Toppling Failure

Flexural toppling is a mode of failure that may occur in a wide range of layered rock strata in both rock slopes and large underground excavations. Whenever rock mass is composed of a set of parallel discontinuities dipping steeply against the excavated face plane, the rock mass will have the potential of flexural toppling failure as well. In such cases, the rock mass behaves like inclined superimposed cantilever beams that bend under their own weight while transferring the load to the underlying strata. If the bending stress exceeds the rock column’s tensile strength, flexural toppling failure will be initiated. Since the rock columns are “statically indeterminate,” thus, their factors of safety may not be determined solely by equations of equilibrium. The paper describes an analytical model with a sequence of inclined superimposed cantilever rock columns with a potential of flexural topping failure. The model is based on the principle of compatibility equations and leads to a new method by which the magnitudes and points of application of intercolumn forces are determined. On the basis of the proposed model, a safety factor for each rock column can be computed independently. Hence, every rock column will have a unique factor of safety. The least factor of safety that exists in any rock column is selected as the rock mass representative safety factor based on which simple equations are proposed for a conservative rock mass stability analysis and design. As a result, some new relations are established in order to design the length, cross-sectional area and pattern of fully grouted rock bolts for the stabilisation of such rock mass. Finally, the newly proposed equations are compared with the results of existing experimental flexural toppling failure models (base friction and centrifuge tests) for further verification.     

Geological controls on rock mass classification of coal from Huntly East Mine, New Zealand

Rock Mass Rating (RMR) measurements from 65 sites within Huntly East underground coal mine are presented. All measurements are in coal, for which the dominant discontinuities are vertical cleat. Basic RMR values using two discontinuity spacings are presented: overall RMR based on the average spacing of all individual discontinuities; and cleat zone RMR based on the average spacing between zones of cleat. Cleat orientations are highly variable, but on average approximately parallel horizontal stress axes (face cleat follows maximum horizontal stress axis, butt cleat follows minimum horizontal stress axis).Contours of RMR variations throughout the mine are used to compare rock mass conditions with geological structure. It is apparent that: (1) RMR is least within downthrown fault blocks, and particularly immediately on the downthrown sides of faults, and greatest in upthrown fault blocks; and (2) RMR contours parallel horizontal stress axes within fault-bounded blocks, and bend to parallel faults at block boundaries. From similar contours for parameters contributing to RMR, the Rock Quality Designation (RQD), groundwater rating, and discontinuity condition rating create most of the observed variations in RMR. RQD is determined from the measured discontinuity frequency and hence is a measure of the degree of fracturing of the rock mass. This is interpreted as influencing the groundwater and condition parameters directly by allowing greater water ingress. Discontinuity frequency is greatest (least spacing) in the immediate vicinity of faults, and in downthrown fault blocks, generating low RMR values. Within fault blocks RQD varies little, so RMR contours align with cleat orientations.As RMR contours, faults, stress field and cleat orientation are clearly interrelated, there is unequivocally a connection between RMR and structural geology; this allows some predictive capacity in terms of ground conditions. If geological features can be accurately defined through either drilling programs or seismic surveys, then ground conditions may be predicted before panels are driven.     

Influence of Rock Mass Parameters on the Performance of a TBM in a Gneissic Formation (Varzo Tunnel)

Summary The paper analyses the influence of rock mass quality on the performance of a double shield TBM in the excavation of a tunnel in a gneiss formation which is characterized by high strength and low fracture intensity.As full observation of the rock conditions was prevented by the use of segmental lining, a geomechanical survey of the face was performed during maintenance downtime and the observed conditions were correlated with the machine performance parameters for that same day. A statistical analysis of the data shows that penetration rate correlates well with a slightly modified RMR index (in which the influence of the water conditions and joint orientation were discounted), but the most important factor is by far the partial rating of the RMR classification related to joint spacing only. However in tunnels characterized by greater variability in rock strength and joint conditions, it could be worthwhile using the complete RMR index.Given the toughness of the rock, failure of the cutter bearings and supports were a frequent occurrence during excavation. Owing to this factor the influence of rock quality on the rate of advance was found to be weak and the correlation more scattered.The results obtained for the Varzo tunnel were compared with those relative to other tunnels in granitic rocks and found to be in good agreement. However the relationships obtained should be considered valid only for this type of rock; machine behaviour could be found to be markedly different in other rock types, even where rock material strength and joint frequency are the same.     

Stability analysis of rock slopes along Gangadarshan,Pauri, Garhwal,Uttarakhand

The rock mass rating (RMR) and slope mass rating (SMR) has been carried out to classify the slope in terms of slope instability. To understand the RMR and SMR various geostructural, geomorphologic and hydrological parameters of the slopes were measured and analyzed. 32 rock slopes/rock cum debris slopes were identified in the study area. The present RMR and SMR study is an outcome of extensive field study along a stretch of about 10 km on road leading from Srinagar to Pauriarea along Alaknanda valley. The technique followed incorporates the relation between discontinuities and slope along with rock mass rating (RMR) and slope mass rating (SMR). The analysis of the 32 studied slopes shows that in the Gangadarshan area out of six rock slope facets, two falls in class II (stable) and four in class IV (unstable). It is significant to note that the slope facets coming under class IV are comprised of active landslide portions. While the slopes under class II show minor failure or old landslide debris.