Coupled modelling of hydro‐mechanical behaviour of unsaturated compacted expansive soils

The Barcelona basic model cannot predict the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils, whereas the Barcelona expansive model (BExM) can only predict the stress–strain behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils without the water‐retention behaviour being incorporated. Moreover, the micro‐parameters and the coupling function between micro‐structural and macro‐structural strains in the BExM are difficult to determine. Experimental data show that the compression curves for non‐expansive soils under constant suctions are shifted towards higher void ratios with increasing suction, whereas the opposite is true for expansive soils. According to the observed water‐retention behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils, the air‐entry value increases with density, and the relationship between the degree of saturation and void ratio is linear at constant suction. According to the above observation, an elastoplastic constitutive model is developed for predicting the hydraulic and mechanical behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils, based on the existing hydro‐mechanical model for non‐expansive unsaturated soil. The model takes into consideration the effect of degree of saturation on the mechanical behaviour and that of void ratio on the water‐retention behaviour. The concept of equivalent void ratio curve is introduced to distinguish the plastic potential curve from the yield curve. The model predictions are compared with the test results of an unsaturated expansive soil, including swelling tests under constant net stress, isotropic compression tests and triaxial shear tests under constant suction. The comparison indicates that the model offers great potential for quantitatively predicting the hydraulic and mechanical behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

初始孔隙比对高吸力下非饱和土土水特性的影响

在我国西北干旱半干旱地区,处于高吸力范围内的非饱和土广泛存在于各种岩土工程中。非饱和土土水特性的研究是非饱和土渗流、强度与变形研究的基础。为研究高吸力下不同初始孔隙比非饱和土的土水特性,以一种粉土试样作为研究对象,采用饱和盐溶液蒸汽平衡法控制土试样的吸力,利用阿基米德原理量测不规则土试样的体积,通过修正的Van-Gen...     

高庙子膨润土与砂混合物的土-水特征曲线

用滤纸法和压力板法对高庙子膨润土与福建砂的混合物进行试验研究,在不同孔隙比和不同膨润土与砂配合比情况下量测脱湿过程的土-水特征曲线,研究土-水特征曲线与孔隙比和配合比之间的关系。试验结果表明：在同一配合比下用饱和度与吸力表示土-水特征曲线时,其曲线随着孔隙比的减小向右上方移动,即当土样的吸力一定时,土样的饱和度随着孔隙比的减小而增大,当吸力小于10 MPa时,这种现象较为显著;在同一孔隙比下膨润土与砂混合物的土-水特征曲线随着膨润土的比例增加而向右上方移动,即混合物的进气值随着膨润土的比例增加而增大;另外,配合比以及孔隙比相同时,膨润土与福建砂的混合物的土-水特征曲线与日本产Kunigel膨润土与丰浦砂的混合物的土-水特征曲线非常接近。     

湿胀条件下合肥膨胀土土-水特征研究

膨胀土在吸水时会产生体积膨胀,研究湿胀条件下膨胀土的土-水特征具有重要意义。以合肥地区9种弱膨胀土为研究对象,采用滤纸法和渗析法试验测定了膨胀土的土-水特征,采用蒸汽加湿法试验测定了膨胀土在吸湿过程中的体积变化。基于土-水特征曲线（SWCC）试验及加湿试验,获得了膨胀土在吸湿过程中的体积变化规律,得到了湿胀条件下膨胀土的重力含水率?基质吸力曲线（w-ψ曲线）及体积含水率?基质吸力曲线（θw3-ψ曲线）,分析了膨胀土吸湿过程中的体积变化对体积含水率?基质吸力曲线的影响,探讨了w-ψ与θw3-ψ曲线拟合参数的变异性及参数间的相关性。结果表明：蒸汽法加湿土样是一种较为理想的增湿方式;湿胀条件下,w-ψ曲线与考虑体变的θw3-ψ曲线的差异程度与吸湿结束后的土样含水率有关;w-ψ曲线的变异性小于θw3-ψ曲线的变异性;拟合参数n的变异性小于参数a及m的变异性;w-ψ曲线及θw3-ψ曲线的对应拟合参数间呈线性关系。     

Shale swelling/shrinkage and water content change due to imposed suction and due to direct brine contact

Analyses were performed on nine different preserved shales, representing in situ states of 5–15 % water content and 0.13–0.42 void ratio. Under varying total suction (controlled humidity), each shale shows well-defined relationships among suction, volume change, water content and saturation, with the lower-porosity shales undergoing less volume and water content change than the higher-porosity shales. A decrease in in situ porosity is also associated with a much higher native state suction as well as full saturation extending to suction values beyond 40 MPa. Only part of the high suction is due to capillary tension. Under direct brine exposure, the shales almost always swell, even when the brine has an equivalent suction greater than the shale. This is likely due to the reduction in some component of the matric suction. The shale pore water is found to equilibrate with the solute content of the surrounding brine, due to ion diffusion. Much or all of the swelling, and water increase, appears to take place in the clay-bound water and not in the main (free water) pore space. The swelling magnitude is consistent with the amount of water content increase. Swelling usually corresponds to less than one additional water layer being added between the clays. Swelling, and water increase, is very small for the low-porosity shales. Some osmotic effects are observable in all the shales, and cation exchange on the clays also takes place. Swelling is best inhibited with potassium, followed by sodium, followed by calcium, for brines of equal water activity ranging from 0.8 to 0.9.     

An analytical model of soil–structure interaction with swelling soils during droughts

Lightly loaded structures constructed on expansive soils may develop structural damage as a result of changes in the soil’s moisture content. This study investigated an analytical model of soil–structure interaction to assess the settlement of dwellings built on swelling soils when droughts occur. The building behavior was investigated with the Euler–Bernoulli beam theory, and the ground behavior was investigated with a Winkler-derived model based on the state surface approach. The analytical model results were compared to those of a finite element analysis using the Barcelona Expansive Model (BExM) performed with Code_Bright.The analytical model was then used to assess the settlement transmission ratio for a typology of clayey soils and different parameters of building. The results indicated that the final deflection of the building increased with the building length and soil suction. The building deflection due to the suction variations was inversely proportional to the load, the rigidity of the building and the embedding depth of the foundation. Increasing these parameters made the building less vulnerable to shrinkage and swelling action.     

Model suggested for an important part of the hydro-mechanical behaviour of a water unsaturated bentonite

The hydro-mechanical behaviour of a clay-based buffer material for nuclear waste disposal has been investigated in a laboratory program. In this program, the main focus was on the influence of confinement on water uptake and swelling pressure during suction decrease. The laboratory program and some of the results are presented by Dueck [Dueck, A., 2006. Laboratory results from hydro-mechanical tests on a water unsaturated bentonite. submitted for publication.].

The results from the laboratory tests were used to find a relationship between water content, void ratio, swelling pressure and suction. Two equations for swelling pressure represent the outline of the model.

In the first equation, the swelling pressure developed during water uptake is normalised by a pressure corresponding to the swelling pressure at saturation. This is done in order to be independent of void ratio. A relationship between the normalised swelling pressure and the degree of saturation is suggested.

The second equation describes a relationship between the swelling pressure, the water content and the actual suction (or relative humidity). The equation is based on a thermodynamic relationship and includes the retention curve (i.e. water content vs. suction under free swelling conditions).

The model can be used for a state where two of the four variables; water content, void ratio, swelling pressure and suction are known and can thus be useful to evaluate field measurements and model late stages of the wetting process. An example of an application is given. The equations are mainly based on results from tests with increasing degrees of saturation under constant void ratio but are also suggested for use with increasing void ratio.     

膨润土-砂混合型缓冲/回填材料土-水特征曲线研究

高放废物（HLW）深地质处置中,在膨润土中添加一定比例的石英砂能优化缓冲/回填材料的性能。利用水汽平衡法,对高庙子压实膨润土-砂混合物在不同温度、掺砂率和干密度条件下的土-水特征曲线（SWCCs）进行试验研究,分析温度、掺砂率与干密度对混合物土-水特征曲线的影响。试验结果表明,随着温度升高,混合物的持水能力明显下降;在试验控制吸力范围内,低吸力段掺砂率对土-水特征曲线影响明显,高吸力段掺砂率对混合物土-水特征曲线的影响逐渐降低;干密度对混合物的土-水特征曲线基本没有影响。根据试验数据建立了不同温度和掺砂率条件下膨润土-砂缓冲/回填材料土-水特征曲线的经验公式,可用来预测不同温度和掺砂率条件下的膨润土-砂混合型缓冲/回填材料土-水特征曲线     

不同压实度荆门弱膨胀土的一维膨胀-压缩特性

为探讨压实膨胀土的体变行为,以荆门弱膨胀土为研究对象,借助高压固结仪对6种制样压实度下的膨胀土试样进行了一维无荷载膨胀和含一次卸载-再加载循环的压缩试验。基于膨胀试验结果,构建了膨胀时程方程,通过参数分析,明确了方程参数的物理意义,并建议了膨胀时程曲线3阶段的划分方法。基于压缩试验结果,探讨了固结屈服应力、压缩指数Cc、回弹指数Cs、膨胀力与制样压实度、土体结构性、膨胀势、孔隙比的相关关系。试验结果及其分析表明,膨胀土体积变化是膨胀势与外部荷载、湿度变化的耦合作用结果,且具有强烈的水-力路径依赖性。     

Predicting bimodal soil–water characteristic curves and permeability functions using physically based parameters

Experimental evidence shows that a gap-graded soil or a widely-graded granular material may have a bimodal soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) and a bimodal permeability function. A bimodal SWCC or a bimodal permeability function originates from a dual-porosity structure. To date, the prediction of bimodal SWCCs for gap-graded soils is still a difficult task. In this paper, a bimodal SWCC model is proposed to describe the drying process of granular soils considering a dual-porosity structure. The new SWCC model shows powerful capability in fitting the SWCCs for soils varying from gravel to silt. Regression analysis is conducted to establish empirical relations between the model parameters and the indexes of soil grain-size distribution (GSD). Based on these relations, the new model predicts well both the bimodal SWCCs for gap-graded soils and the unimodal SWCCs for well-graded soils and uniform soils. A bimodal permeability function is also proposed and linked to the new SWCC model. In the absence of experimental SWCCs and permeability functions, the new model can be used to obtain preliminary SWCCs and permeability functions for granular soils. It should be mentioned that the prediction of the SWCC from the GSD is still empirical and does not address the cyclic wetting/drying process. Measurement of the SWCC should be performed wherever an accurate SWCC is required.     

基于可靠度方法的全基质吸力段土-水特征模型研究

土-水特征曲线是非饱和土入渗和流-固耦合分析的基础,目前该模型的研究成果由于试验方法和设备的局限,仅能够得到局部基质吸力段(低吸力或高吸力)的土-水特征曲线;而如何根据局部试验数据集推断与试验结果相吻合的全基质吸力段范围的土-水特征曲线是一个难题。对东南沿海广泛分布的原状残积土进行了不同基质吸力段的土-水特征试验。根据残积土低吸力段和高吸力段的试验数据,运用可靠度分析方法,从土壤孔隙微元破裂失稳的角度,建立了土壤全基质吸力段的土-水特征模型。根据UNSODA2.0数据库提取砂土、粉土、黏土等3种类型土样本(52个)的试验数据,讨论了模型参数意义和不同土类的模型适用性,进行了不同土-水特征模型的比较分析。对比验证研究表明,形状参数σ和中值比例参数μ使提出的模型具有很强的适应性,并且具有依据局部试验数据(低或高基质吸力段)快速获得全基质吸力段土壤土-水特征曲线的能力。与其它模型相比,模型计算过程适应性强,模型决定系数R2>0.98。研究结果对快速获取不同类型土壤的全基质吸力段土-水特征曲线具有参考价值。     

全吸力范围南阳膨胀土的土-水特征曲线

膨胀土的失水收缩、吸水膨胀过程分别对应着土-水特征曲线的脱湿和吸湿阶段。土-水特征曲线对于研究非饱和土的水力与力学特性有着重要作用。用压力板法（吸力范围0～1.5 MPa）、滤纸法（吸力范围0～40 MPa）和蒸汽平衡法（吸力范围3～368 MPa）,分别对南阳膨胀土进行了土-水特性试验,得到全吸力范围内的土-水特征曲线。试验结果表明：初始孔隙比大致相同土样的土-水特征曲线,在低吸力范围内脱湿曲线与吸湿曲线具有明显的滞回现象。当吸力大于300 MPa时,土-水特征曲线的滞回效应基本消失,即脱湿曲线与吸湿曲线基本重合。滤纸法所测出的土-水特性落在主脱湿和主吸湿曲线的滞回圈内。当吸力等于367.54 MPa时,含水率仅为0.325%,几乎近于0。孔隙比随着吸力的变化规律中,不仅受到吸力大小的影响,还受到吸力历史和吸力路径影响;孔隙比与吸力关系中,相同吸力时吸湿路径的孔隙比要比脱湿路径的大;在吸力低范围,吸湿路径与脱湿路径的孔隙比相近。孔隙比与饱和度关系因吸力路径的不同也存在着明显的滞回效应,接近饱和时趋近一致。变吸力情况条件下,饱和度随着孔隙比的增加而增加,蒸汽平衡法得出的孔隙比与饱和度的关系具有明显的线性关系,而压力板法做出来的低吸力范围内的线性关系不明显。     

Investigation on Soil–Water Characteristic Curves of Untreated and Stabilized Highly Clayey Expansive Soils

The examination of hydromechanical behavior of expansive soil lies mostly within the unsaturated soil mechanics framework, which renders the study of its soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) a necessity. This paper evaluates the correlations of two physicochemical properties, pH and surface conductance, with the behavior of the SWCCs of four natural expansive soils and four stabilized soils. The effects of chemical stabilization and curing time on the SWCCs are also analyzed. The SWCCs and the corresponding parameters were obtained from pressure plate tests and a fitting model. It was found that pH and surface conductance together showed a good correlation with the air-entry related parameter, α, because they determine the formation of the diffuse double layer around fine particles or aggregates. The macroscopic behavior, in terms of unconfined compressive strength, free swell and swell pressure at optimum moisture content (OMC), was also evaluated and good correlations of these property values with the matric suction values at OMC were observed for the four natural untreated soils, while no correlation existed for the stabilized soils. The results and the discussion provide new insight to address physicochemical mechanisms that determine the macroscopic behavior of expansive soil.     

Multi-scale characterization of swelling behaviour of compacted Maryland clay

This paper presents a comprehensive experimental investigation on time-dependent swelling behaviour at both macroscale and microscale of a natural Australian expansive soil in compacted state. A number of one-dimensional swelling tests under different vertical pressures, different initial void ratios and initial water contents were performed. The characterization at macroscale was complemented by extensive microstructural investigations through mercury intrusion porosimetry and scanning electron microscope observation on both as-compacted and swollen specimens. The results were discussed at two different scales within a framework of double-porosity, which was finalized by linking the macrostructural–microstructural strains ratio with secondary swelling/compression coefficients. The multi-scale correlation appears to be largely independent of the specimen initial conditions. The study showed that the secondary swelling and primary swelling are governed by the same factors and that secondary swelling takes place mainly in macropores, of which the change magnitude depends on the level of confinement applied. The microstructural investigations show that swelling is accompanied by significant microfabric changes.     

Reduction of Expansive Index,Swelling and Compression Behavior of Kaolinite and Bentonite Clay with Sand and Class C Fly Ash

Swelling behavior of expansive soil has always created problems in the field of geotechnical engineering. Generally, the method used to assess the swelling potential of expansive soil from its plasticity index, shrinkage limit and colloidal content. Alternative way to evaluate swelling behavior is from its expansive index (EI) and swelling pressure value. The present study investigates the reduction of EI and swelling pressure for kaolinite and bentonite clay when mixed with various percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. The percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash used were 0–50 % by weight. The results show that there is a significant reduction in the swelling properties of expansive soil with the addition of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. The reduction in EI ranged approximately from 10 to 50 and 4 to 49 % for kaolinite and bentonite clay, respectively. Also the maximum swelling pressure of kaolinite and bentonite clay decreased approximately 93 and 64 %, respectively with the addition of various percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. Standard index properties test viz., liquid limit, plastic limit and linear shrinkage test were conducted to see the characteristics of expansive soil when mixed with less expansive sand and fly ash. Also, for these expansive soils one dimensional consolidation test have been conducted with sand and fly ash mixtures and the results were compared with pure kaolinite and bentonite clay.     

压实膨润土在盐溶液中的膨胀变形特性

采用蒸馏水以及浓度不同的NaCl溶液作为浸泡溶液,对商用膨润土进行了膨胀变形试验。结果表明在相同的荷载作用下,膨胀变形随浸泡溶液浓度的增加而减小。这是因为浸泡溶液的浓度越大,溶液的渗透吸力也越大,渗透吸力的增加将引起施加在黏土颗粒上有效应力的增加,使得在外部施加荷载相同时膨润土的膨胀变形随溶液浓度的增加而减小。当压实膨润土在盐溶液中膨胀时,其有效应力pe可分为两部分,即施加荷载部分p和渗透吸力部分p。对于浸泡于蒸馏水和NaCl溶液中的膨润土试样,其膨胀后的蒙脱石孔隙比em与有效应力pe之间的关系可采用同一关系曲线表示,此时施加于黏土颗粒上的有效应力的渗透吸力部分p=(p/)0.66。     

Influence of suction cycles on the soil fabric of compacted swelling soil

The soil fabric plays an important role in complex hydromechanical behaviour of the expansive soils. This article addresses the influence of the wetting and drying paths on the soil fabric of compacted bentonite and silt mixtures at two different initial dry densities corresponding to loose and dense states. To obtain the hydric response of the soil, two suction imposition techniques were used: osmotic technique for the suction range less than 8.5 MPa and the vapour equilibrium or the salt solution technique for the suction range between 8.5 and 287.9 MPa. Additionally, the soil fabric analysis was performed using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and nitrogen gas adsorption (BET) techniques. The dense samples produced cumulative swelling strains during the suction cycles, while shrinkage was observed for the loose samples. The suction cycles induced an equilibrium state indicative of the elastic behaviour of the samples. The soil fabric analysis showed that regardless of the soil's initial state (loose or dense), the samples obtained the same soil fabric at the equilibrium state. The experimental results illustrated also the existence of an elastic void ratio (e_0el) where the compacted soils at this state present an elastic hydric behaviour during the successive suction cycles.     

A dual-porosity model for the study of chemical effects on the swelling behaviour of MX-80 bentonite

Significant chemical influence on the swelling potential of MX-80 bentonite was observed during swelling tests where specimens were hydrated with highly concentrated brine. The maximum swelling pressure for specimens hydrated with brine was about 30% of the maximum swelling pressure for the same specimens hydrated with de-ionized water. The maximum swelling pressure was attained within tens of hours of brine infiltration and further decreased by half within a year. A fully coupled hydro–mechanical–chemical (HMC) dual-porosity model is proposed in this paper to interpret the swelling behaviour of MX-80 when infiltrated with brine. The dependence of hydraulic and mechanical properties on such factors as porosity, salinity and water content was investigated. A nonlinear elastic constitutive model was proposed to correlate the swelling pressure with the variation in the microporosity. The chemical effects on the mechanical behaviour were coupled at the micropore level. A number of relationships have been developed for MX-80, i.e. micropore permeability as a function of void ratio, water retention characteristics of micropores and macropores, micropore dependence on water content and the diffusion coefficients of the two types of pore structure. The proposed model was successful in reproducing both quantitatively and qualitatively the experimental results from two sets of infiltration experiments on compacted MX-80 bentonite.

     

Swelling behaviour of expansive soil treated with fly ash–GGBS based binder

In this article, the potential of a binder developed by admixing fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) to stabilise expansive soils is evaluated. Laboratory tests included determination of free swell index, swell potential and swelling pressure tests of the soil/binder mixtures at different mixing ratio. The test results showed decrease in the swelling behaviour of the soil with increase in binder content. The percent swell–time relationship was observed to fit the hyperbolic curves enabling us to predict the ultimate percent swell from few initial test results. Addition of 1% of lime to the binder showed further improvement in reducing swelling. A good linear relationship is established between percent oedometer swell and modified free swell index (MFSI) for soil/binder mixtures without lime but the same has not been observed in the presence of lime. The compressibility characteristics of the soil/binder mixtures reduced nominally with increase in binder content but in the presence of lime, the compressibility reduced significantly. Binder used in this study has been found to be effective and economic to stabilise expansive soils with lesser amount of chemical additives such as lime.     

高压实膨润土的非饱和渗透膨胀模型

高放废弃物深地质处置库中,作为缓冲/回填材料的高压实膨润土的设计功能是,遇水吸湿导致土体膨胀变形,以密封高压实膨润土块体砌置时形成的块体与块体之间和块体与围岩之间的施工缝隙以及围岩中因处置库开挖卸载引起的裂缝,形成阻障围岩中地下水渗入内库引起核素迁移,与库内高放废物的辐射扩散的人工屏障。高压实膨润土在自由膨胀条件下的膨胀应变和非饱和渗透系数由渗透试验测得;孔隙比和吸力的关系由压汞试验测得。吸力和含水率的函数关系可由土-水特征曲线测试试验得到。因此,自由膨胀条件下膨润土的非饱和渗透膨胀模型由膨胀应变、非饱和渗透系数和孔隙比与吸力的函数关系建立。结果表明：渗透系数和体积应变都随吸力减小而增加,因为吸力减小会导致孔隙比增加。这一发现有助于设计高放废物的最终处置方案。