Geotechnical investigation of the El-Elb dam site,northwest Riyadh,Saudi Arabia,using 2D resistivity and ground-penetrating radar techniques

In the present study, the existence of cavities, voids, and fractures was verified at the site of the El-Elb Dam, which is located to the northwest of Riyadh City across Wadi Hanifa, using 2D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) techniques. For this purpose, four ERT profiles were measured on the downstream side of the El-Elb Dam using the Syscal Pro Switch-72 resistivity meter. In addition, a GPR survey using a 400-MHz antenna and a SIR-3000 instrument was conducted along five profiles above the stilling basins on the downstream side of the dam and one radar profile was measured outside the stilling basins area across the course of the wadi. The resultant geophysical data were interpreted with the aid of information from a field-based structural and stratigraphic evaluation of the outcropped bedrock on the banks of the wadi course. The analysis of the inverted ERT and filtered radar sections revealed several resistivity and electromagnetic reflection anomalies that are identified laterally and vertically across the measured sections. These anomalies indicate the presence of fractures and karst features affected the limestone bedrock in the dam site. These near-surface karstified and fractured strata represent a critical hazard to the structural safety of the dam.     

Multiscale analysis of 3D GPR data using the 2D directional continuous wavelet transform (DCWT)

The main goal of this paper is to extract land topographical information by analyzing the 3D ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data by the 2D directional continuous wavelet transform method. The first objective is to identify direction of obstacles, and the second is to characterize each one with a special roughness coefficient. Application on real data shows that the proposed tool can enhance the GPR data interpretation.     

Ground penetrating radar and 2D electric resistivity studies for tracing hydrocarbon leakage site,close to Abha City: a case study

This work presents the application of the ground-penetrating radar (GPR) method and electric resistivity tomography (ERT) technique in outlining a zone of contamination due to the light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) plume underground in the area of an impacted fuel station, close to Abha City. The GPR has been performed using SIR3000 unit with the 100 and 400 MHz antennas. The main objective of the GPR survey was to evaluate the lateral extension of contamination. The complex GPR signature of the plume was well characterized. Low reflectivity zone corresponds to hydrocarbon vapor phase in the vadose zone. Enhanced reflections are associated with free and residual products in the fractured saturated zone directly above the water table. An electric resistivity tomography (ERT) survey was performed on four profiles within the site to investigate the vertical and horizontal extent of the contamination plume and to define the bottom of the landfill. The 2D electric profiles show the presence of low-resistivity (4O to 37 Ω m) anomalies that refers to the presence of accumulated hydrocarbons. From the interpretation of the GPR and ERT profile, it was possible to locate the top and bottom of the contamination plume of the waste disposal site. The radar signal penetrated deep enough and enabled the identification of a second reflector at approximately 10-m deep, interpreted as the hard basement surface which causes the strong amplitude reflection in the GPR profile. The results of GPR and ERT showed good agreement.     

Multiscale analysis of noisy 3D GPR data using the directional continuous wavelet transform

Here, we present a new technique of noise effect attenuation in the 3D ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data analysis using the 2D directional continuous wavelet transform (DCWT). The proposed technique is based on the application of a Gaussian low pass filter to the modulus of the 2D DCWT for low scales. After application of the low pass filter, maxima of the CWT are mapped for all range of scales. Application to a noisy GPR data shows that the proposed idea can improve GPR data analysis by the continuous wavelet transform.     

The use of ground-penetrating radar to map the buried structures and landscape of the ceren site,el salvador

More than 7800 m of digital ground-penetrating radar data were acquired at the buried 6th century archaeological site of Ceren in El Salvador. The data were used to explore for buried structures and map the paleotopography through more than 5 m of volcanic overburden. The archaeological site consists of an agricultural village that was rapidly buried by pyroclastic debris erupted from a nearby volcano, preserving structures, plants, agricultural fields, and much of the surrounding landscape. Ground-penetrating radar profiles were computer-processed to remove system and background noise and time-depth corrected to identify the reflection which represents the ancient ground surface. This buried surface, and the structures built on it, were computer-modeled in two dimensions to aid in anomaly identification and interpretation. Twenty-six buried structures were identified on GPR profiles and an accurate representation of the landscape and environment, as it existed just prior to the eruption, was reconstructed. Ground-penetrating radar is an excellent geophysical tool with which to reconstruct buried landscapes and map cultural features due to its ability to accurately resolve underground features in three dimensions.     

Advanced Geostructural Survey Methods Applied to Rock Mass Characterization

The location and orientation of rock discontinuities, which are traditionally obtained from geological surveys with obvious drawbacks (safety, rock face accessibility, etc.), may also be derived from a detailed and accurate photogrammetric or laser scanning survey. Selecting from the point cloud determined on the rock face a set of points distributed on a particular discontinuity, location, dip, and dip direction can be computed from the least-squares estimate of the plane interpolating the set of points. Likewise, the normal vector to the surface may be computed from an interpolation or approximation of the surface by appropriate functions. To become a real alternative (both in terms of productivity as well as accuracy) to a traditional survey, interactive or automated software tools are necessary, to allow the efficient selection of the point sets on the discontinuities or the interpretation of the normal vector pattern. After introducing the two best technologies available today for data acquisition and their performance, the paper presents an approach, based on the random sample consensus (RANSAC) procedure, to the segmentation of the point cloud into subsets, each made of points measured on a discontinuity plane of the rock face. For each subset, the plane’s equations coefficients are first determined by robust estimation and then refined by least-squares estimation after outlier removal. The segmentation algorithm has been implemented in RockScan, a software tool developed to facilitate the interaction with the point cloud in the identification of the discontinuities; rather than using the three-dimensional (3D) data, selection of regions of interest is performed on oriented images of the rock face. Finally, application of RockScan to four different test sites is discussed and results presented. The sites differ in size (from tens to hundreds of meters), rock surface characteristics, and the technology used to produce the point cloud (in three cases photogrammetry, in the fourth laser scanning), giving the opportunity to test the methodology in different contexts. In the first and in the fourth site an extensive traditional survey has been performed, providing reference data to validate the RockScan results.     

基于单个钻孔孔壁电视图像确定地下岩体结构面产状的普适数学方法

岩体结构面产状是影响岩体力学性质及工程稳定性的重要地质因素.从钻孔孔壁电视平展图上可较精确地提取结构面迹线上不共线三点的相对二维坐标(d, h),再利用空间解析几何理论确定其三维空间相对坐标(x, y, z),并求得结构面法向矢量.根据钻孔孔壁与坡面及结构面产状的空间几何关系,在保持原点不变的情况下,采用空间坐标变换的方法,将三维坐标系z轴和y轴分别转化为竖直方向z′和正北地理方向y′,并确定转化后坐标系空间的结构面法向矢量.再从结构面产状的定义出发,根据结构面法向矢量与结构面倾向、倾角的相关性,建立了一个空间几何模型,通过该模型可求得任意平直坡面上任一钻孔内局部岩体结构面的产状.      

Unveiling buried aeolian landscapes: reconstructing a late Holocene dune environment using 3D ground-penetrating radar

Across the UK, sandy beaches and dunes protect coastal infrastructure from waves and extreme water levels during large-scale storms, while providing important habitats and recreational opportunities. Understanding their long-term evolution is vital in managing their condition in a changing climate. Recently, ground-penetrating radar (GPR) methods have grown in popularity in geomorphological applications, yielding centimetre-scale resolution images of near-surface stratigraphy and structure, thus allowing landscape evolution to be reconstructed. Additionally, abrupt changes in palaeo-environments can be visualized in three dimensions. Although often complemented by core data, GPR allows interpretations to be extended into areas with minimal ground-truth control. Nonetheless, GPR data interpretation can be non-intuitive and ambiguous, and radargrams may not initially resemble the expected subsurface geometry. Interpretation can be made yet more onerous when handling the large 3D data volumes that are facilitated with modern GPR technology. Here we describe the development of novel semi-automated GPR feature-extraction tools, based on ‘edge detection’ and ‘thresholding’ methods, which detect regions of increased GPR reflectivity which can be applied to aid in the reconstruction of a range Quaternary landscapes. Since reflectivity can be related to lithological and/or pore fluid changes, the 3D architecture of the palaeo-landscape can be reconstructed from the features extracted from a geophysical dataset. We present 500 MHz GPR data collected over a buried Holocene coastal dune system in North Wales, UK, now reclaimed for use as an airfield. Core data from the site, reaching a maximum depth 2 m, suggest rapid vertical changes from sand to silty-organic units, and GPR profiles suggest similar lateral complexity. By applying thresholding methods to GPR depth slices, these lateral complexities are effectively and automatically mapped. Furthermore, automatic extraction of the local reflection power yields a strong correlation with the depth variation of organic content, suggesting it is a cause of reflectivity contrast. GPR-interpolated analyses away from core control thus offer a powerful proxy for parameters derived from invasive core logging. The GPR data collected at Llanbedr airfield highlight a complex dune system to a depth of 2.8 m, probably deposited in several phases over ~700 years, similar to elsewhere in North Wales.     

Concealed thrusts in the Middle Gangetic plain,India – A ground penetrating radar study proves the truth against the geomorphic features supporting normal faulting

As no evidence for thrusting has yet been reported from the Indo-Gangetic plain so, the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) has been considered to be the southern most limit of the Siwaliks to the Indo-Gangetic plain. The present study highlights the thrusting activities between the Gandak and Kosi megafan area in the Middle Gangetic plain. As these thrust sheets are concealed beneath thick sediment cover, direct surficial studies of the discontinuity planes are not possible. Further, the topographic breaks formed by the backward erosion of the uplifted thrust faces resemble normal faults with hanging walls to south. Due to gradual decreasing upliftment and/or erosion from north to south, the area shows a step like topographic appearance. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) studies reveal the concealed thrust planes beneath the sediments and the topographic breaks looking like normal faults are interpreted to be the relief created by backward erosion of the thrust sheets along with the overlying sediments. Out of four GPR profiles taken using 100 MHz antennae, three are across the topographic breaks along which most of the terminal fans are formed and one across the basement fault to study its subsurface nature. Initially GPR failed to strike any subsurface discontinuities at the topographic breaks. However, at certain distance to the south of the topographic breaks, GPR was able to strike the northerly dipping subsurface discontinuity planes. By combining the seismological signatures (distribution of earthquake epicenters) with geomorphology, these discontinuities are identified as thrusts. The GPR profiles show a gradual decrease of dip of the thrust planes from north to south across the area. Hence, by the geomorphology, seismological behavior, topography, orientation and continuity, other topographic breaks can be compared with the proven thrusts. GPR study on the basement fault revealed that the NE–SW trending basement faults are not active in the area. The compression between the South Muzaffarpur fault and the peninsular shield led to the generation of the N–S trending extensional Hathauri–Simariaghat fault with downthrown block towards east. Due to depth penetration limit, the GPR study was confined within 15 m depth. The presence of the discontinuity planes up to the base of the GPR profiles indicate their continuity at least up to the base of Holocene sediments. Although this study brought out the presence of concealed thrusts to the south of the HFT, more detailed work is needed further to study their depth extension, relation to the basement and their implication in Himalayan tectonics in a broad manner. At present, we consider these thrusts to be the splays of the HFT. For confirmation, we propose to carryout detail seismic surveys in future research work.     

基于数字表面模型的岩体结构面产状获取

针对传统现场接触式测量获取岩体结构面参数效率低、工作量大、结果精确性受人为因素影响等问题,本文结合数字摄影测量技术与运动法（structure from motion,SFM）进行岩体三维数字表面模型重建,并在此基础上建立了岩体结构面自动识别方法。岩体数字表面模型重建步骤主要为岩体影像资料采集,基于尺度不变特征变换（Scale-Invariant Feature Transform,SIFT）算法进行图像特征匹配、稀疏点云构建、点云稠密化以及岩体曲面模型重构。结构面识别方法流程主要为:首先平滑岩体数字表面模型;通过改变搜索半径和角度阈值实现模型平面分割;基于区域生长原理进行结构面搜索;最后基于随机采样一致性拟合结构面得到结构面产状。将该方法应用于甘肃北山地下实验巷道,实现了巷道三维数字表面模型的重建与结构面产状数据获取,最后将识别到的结构面分组表征在模型表面。与人工实地测量方法以及现有的结构面识别软件相比,本文提出的方法具有良好的准确性,可为工程应用提供一定的参考。     

Requirements for the performance of a ground-penetrating radar system in searching for cavities

The requirements for the performance of a ground-penetrating radar (GPR) system for detecting subsurface cavities are analyzed by numerical modeling of the GPR problem. The algorithm used to solve the forward GPR problem is approximated to a real experiment with regard to the design of the GPR system, the parameters of the source and receiver, and their position relative to the medium under study and its inhomogeneity. We calculated the spatiotemporal distribution of the field of the detected signal from a pulse source located at the interface between the medium and a cavity anomaly of a given geometry. The results were used to estimate the dynamic range of the GPR system necessary for determining the anomaly. We also performed GPR surveys of low-contrast inhomogeneities (cavities in mines) using GROT 12 GPR systems and analyzed the survey results by numerical modeling. It is shown that the GPR performance required to detect and locate inhomogeneities of interest at a certain sounding depth can be estimated in the experiment design phase.     

Verification of a 3-D LiDAR Viewer for Discontinuity Orientations

Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) scanners are increasingly being used to measure discontinuity orientations on rock cuts to eliminate the bias and hazards of manual measurements which are also time consuming and somewhat subjective. Typically LiDAR data sets (point clouds) are analyzed by sophisticated algorithms that break down when conditions are not ideal, for example when some of the discontinuities are obscured by vegetation, or when significant portions of the rock face are composed of fractured facets, weathering generated surfaces, or anything that should not be identified as a discontinuity for the purposes of slope stability analysis. This paper presents a simple LiDAR point cloud viewer that allows the user to view the point cloud, identify discontinuities, pick three points on the surface (plane) of each discontinuity, and generate discontinuity orientations using the three-point method. Additionally, a test of our 3-D LiDAR viewer for discontinuity orientations on rock cuts in the United States of America and Canada is presented.     

基于GPRMax2D的地下管线精细化探测方法

探地雷达是探测地下结构及其分布规律的一种重要的浅层地球物理探测方法,具有分辨率高、无损、抗干扰能力强、结果直观等优点,在工程物探领域被广泛应用。为提高对地下管线雷达图像特征的认识,确定管线异常体的位置,提高地质雷达的解释精度,利用时域有限差分法(FDTD)对地下管线进行精细化探测,包括对管线埋深、材质、管线内充填物、管线病害等影响因素的数值模拟,以此建立地下管线正演模拟合成图库,进而指导探地雷达实际探测图像的解释工作。现场管线探测结果表明:探地雷达可准确探测出地下管线的埋设位置及运行状态,为今后的维修养护提供了依据。     

Use of ground-penetrating radar for assessment of potential sinkhole conditions: an example from Ghor al Haditha area,Jordan

. Sinkholes are near-surface indicators of active karst features at depth, such as cavities, conduits and solutionally enlarged fractures. This study tests the usefulness of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to identify and locate buried sinkholes as a means of interpreting the existence of these subsurface hydraulically-active karst features. GPR survey was made at the Ghor al Haditha area west of the Jordan-DSTF in the Jordan Valley Escarpment at the eastern Dead Sea shoreline. GPR profiles (100 MHz) made along the eastern Dead Sea shoreline showed a trough-like pattern of radar reflections outlining a series of possible filled sinkholes. This feature is about 38 m wide and about 12 m deep. Its width is consistent with the width of the feature obtained from the topographic map of the area. The GPR survey suggests that this feature has been filled with relatively dense and resistive materials. This structure lies almost directly above a major water bearing zone.     

Ground-penetrating radar investigation of active faults along the Dead Sea Transform and implications for seismic hazards within the city of Aqaba, Jordan

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) was used in an effort to locate a major active fault that traverses Aqaba City, Jordan. Measurements over an exposed (trenched) cross fault outside of the city identify a radar signature consisting of linear events and horizontal offset/flexured reflectors both showing a geometric correlation with two known faults at a control site. The asymmetric linear events are consistent with dipping planar reflectors matching the known direction of dip of the faults. However, other observations regarding this radar signature render the mechanism generating these events more complex and uncertain.GPR measurements in Aqaba City were limited to vacant lots. Seven GPR profiles were conducted approximately perpendicular to the assumed strike of the fault zone, based on regional geological evidence. A radar response very similar to that obtained over the cross fault was observed on five of the profiles in Aqaba City, although the response is weaker than that obtained at the control site. The positions of the identified responses form a near straight line with a strike of 45°. Although subsurface verification of the fault by trenching within the city is needed, the geophysical evidence for fault zone location is strong. The location of the interpreted fault zone relative to emergency services, military bases, commercial properties, and residential areas is defined to within a few meters. This study has significant implications for seismic hazard analysis in this tectonically active and heavily populated region.     

基于PFC2D数值试验的异性结构面剪切强度特性研究

天然岩体中广泛发育两侧岩性不同的异性结构面,开展异性结构面变形和强度特性研究旨在为岩体稳定性评价和利用提供依据。选取三峡库区侏罗系典型的砂岩-泥岩异性岩层,首先运用分形几何理论,定量计算了平直和4种不同不规则起伏形态结构面的粗糙度系数JRC值,然后基于PFC2D颗粒流程序,分别开展了以上5种形态异性结构面的数值剪切试验,获得了各形态结构面在不同正应力下的剪切应力-位移曲线。根据数值试验结果,采用巴顿的JRC-JCS模型分析了异性结构面强度特性,并与同性结构面强度性质进行对比研究。最后,在考虑异性结构面剪切破坏机制的基础上,引入强度因子的概念,提出了新的适用于异性结构面强度评价的两类改进巴顿准则。研究结果表明：异性岩体结构面抗剪强度介于相同粗糙度的两种同性结构面强度之间,在较低正应力下接近软岩同性结构面强度,符合Ⅰ型改进巴顿准则;在较高正应力下偏向硬岩同性结构面强度,符合Ⅱ型改进巴顿准则。实际工程中可利用改进准则并根据异性结构面应力状态对岩体稳定性进行评价,弥补了以往研究的不足。     

Surveying and modeling of rock discontinuities by terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetry: Semi-automatic approaches for linear outcrop inspection

Rock face diagnosis is a monitoring operation that is used to optimize rock-risk treatment works in terms of ensuring that safety requirements are met at the lowest cost. Diagnoses require measuring the location and orientation of rock discontinuities at the surface of the rock mass. These measurements are then entered into a structural model that extrapolates the data collected at the surface to the inner part of the rock mass. Currently, most surveys are empirical and are carried out manually using a compass-clinometer. In addition, they tend to examine only the most highly fractured area of a rock face, even though safety considerations demand an exhaustive study of the whole face. These deficiencies can be overcome by using dense 3D measurement techniques such as terrestrial laser scanning and optical imaging to obtain a more complete 3D model and structural statement. Hence, we have developed a semi-automatic process that allows 3D models to be combined with the results of field surveys in order to provide more precise analyses of rock faces, for example, by classifying rock discontinuities into subsets according to their orientation. Further research is being carried out in order to combine 3D data and 2D digital images as a support for structural survey. Trials carried out in a limestone quarry in the French Alps allowed us to compare data sets obtained using manual surveying methods, the well-known laser scanning method and the lower-cost photogrammetric survey method.     

数字钻孔图像兴趣区域分割与岩体结构面特征识别

针对现有数字钻孔图像分析技术的不足,提出新分析方案以实现数字钻孔摄像技术（BCT）所采集钻孔内壁图像的自动化、定量化结构面检测、识别与分析.首先,对数字钻孔图像进行预处理,设计特征信号DH,检测并获取兴趣区域;然后,使用低精度Hough变换快速检测结构面兴趣区域内的结构面分布特征,利用聚类算法分离出单一结构面后,针对单一结构面进行亚像素级Hough变换,以获取结构面的正弦参数;最后,根据结构面正弦参数,计算出结构面的倾向、倾角等信息.通过对如美水电站左坝肩数字钻孔图像实例进行分析,利用本算法完成图像中结构面的自动分割与特征识别,成功获取其几何信息,并与传统人工辅助方案结果进行对比,验证了该算法的可靠性.      

花岗岩体钻孔中结构面的分布规律——以深圳大亚湾花岗岩体为例

结构面对工程岩体的强度及其稳定性起着关键作用。在工程选址时常会首先考虑花岗岩作为其地基或围岩,而钻孔揭露的是目标深度岩体最直接的数据。以广东深圳的大亚湾花岗岩体为例,结合地质背景,研究钻孔方向上结构面的分布规律。钻孔方向上花岗岩结构面主要为构造结构面和表生结构面。首先,对比沿钻孔方向花岗岩体中结构面与地表结构面的倾向与倾角,在同一场址区,受到同一构造作用影响,钻孔中与地表节理的产状分布类似。其次,研究沿钻孔方向结构面的间距（直接影响岩体的RQD值）,通过间距分组和回归分析,发现结构面间距与其频数具有明显的幂函数关系,且该关系式与RQD值相关。