The numerical and empirical evaluation of chimneys considering soil structure interaction and high-temperature effects

During the past strong ground motions, chimneys constructed according to international standards are representative of similar structures at industrial areas throughout the world, including those collapsed or moderately damaged in earthquake-prone regions. This is due to the specialty of structural characteristics and the special loads acting on the structure such as earthquakes, wind and differences in the level of temperature, etc. In this context, the researchers and designers should focus on the dynamic behavior of chimneys especially under high temperature and seismic effects. For this purpose, the main focus of this study is to evaluate the dynamic response of a chimney under the above-mentioned effects considering soil-structure interaction (SSI). A 52 m steel chimney in Yeşilyurt township of Samsun City in Turkey was studied. The in-situ model testing and numerical models were compared. Before the commissioning of the chimney, a series of tests was realized to define its dynamic characteristics in case of no-heat and after the fabric got to work, the same tests were repeated for the same sensor locations to understand the heat effect on the dynamic response of the chimney. The ambient vibration tests are proven to be fast and practical procedures to identify the dynamic characteristics of those structures. The dynamic testing of the towers promises a widespread use, as the identification of seismic vulnerability of such structures becomes increasingly important. The data presented in this study are considered to be useful for the researchers and engineers, for whom the temperature and SSI effects on steel chimneys are a concern. Using the modal analysis techniques, presented finite element simulation for the soil/pile foundation-chimney interaction system is verified. The results of modal analyses using numerical solutions are shown to have acceptable accuracy compared with results obtained by in-situ test. The present study also aims to provide designers with material examples about the influence of these on the seismic performance of steel chimneys by means of reflecting the changes in the dynamic behavior.     

Soil-structure interaction effects on the seismic response of tall chimneys

The effects of soil-structure interaction on the seismic response of tall (>100m) steel and reinforced concrete chimneys are described. Detailed models of a 130m high steel chimney and a 150m high reinforced concrete chimney are used as structural models. The foundations are represented as rigid blocks resting on a uniform viscoelastic soil model. Perfect bonding between the foundation and the soil is assumed. Parametric studies of the interaction effects on the magnitude and distribution of bending moments and shear forces include four soil rigidities and two seismic excitations characterized by very different frequency contents. The results obtained indicate strong interaction effects for intermediate and soft soils (V_s500 m/sec). The extent of the interaction effects are highly dependent on the characteristics of the seismic excitation.     

竖向地震作用对高柔结构的影响

对烟囱的震害规律进行了分析.认为地震时烟囱的破坏,竖向地震力起了很重要的作用.提出了用冲量法来计算烟囱的竖向地震作用,并以190 m 高的钢筋砼烟囱为例进行了计算.对计算结果进行了分析,并指出了烟囱设计中应注意的问题.进一步阐明了计算高柔结构和特定条件下某些结构的竖向地震作用的必要性.     

论烟囱的地震力

在文献[1]中我们根据砖烟囱的震害证明了水平地震力起决定性作用的传统观点是错误的,实际上是竖向地震力在起主要作用。同时还阐述了砖烟囱出现多条裂缝的破坏机理。本文在文献[1]的基础上对烟囱出现斜缝、错位及破坏截面接近顶端等现象,计算其最大水平地震力及最小竖向地震力以证明上述观点.对出现的多条裂缝,也用计算数字来说明其破坏机理.      

Seismic performance of three-dimensional frame structures with underground stories

This paper investigates the seismic performance of moment-resisting frame steel buildings with multiple underground stories resting on shallow foundations. A parametric study that involved evaluating the nonlinear seismic response of five, ten and fifteen story moment-resisting frame steel buildings resting on flexible ground surface, and buildings having one, three and five underground stories was performed. The buildings were assumed to be founded on shallow foundations. Two site conditions were considered: soil class C and soil class E, corresponding to firm and soft soil deposits, respectively. Vancouver seismic hazard has been considered for this study. Synthetic earthquake records compatible with Vancouver uniform hazard spectrum (UHS), as specified by the National Building Code of Canada (NBCC) 2005, have been used as input motion. It was found that soil–structure interaction (SSI) can greatly affect the seismic performance of buildings in terms of the seismic storey shear and moment demand, and the deformations of their structural components. Although most building codes postulate that SSI effects generally decrease the force demand on buildings, but increase the deformation demand, it was found that, for some of the cases considered, SSI effects increased both the force and deformation demand on the buildings. The SSI effects generally depend on the stiffness of the foundation and the number of underground stories. SSI effects are significant for soft soil conditions and negligible for stiff soil conditions. It was also found that SSI effects are significant for buildings resting on flexible ground surface with no underground stories, and gradually decrease with the increase of the number of underground stories.     

Probabilistic estimation of inelastic displacement demands in soil–structure interaction systems on cohesive soils

Inelastic displacement ratios (IDRs) of nonlinear soil–structure interaction (SSI) systems located at sites with cohesive soils are investigated in this study. To capture the effects of inelastic cyclic behavior of the supporting soil, the Beam on Nonlinear Winkler Foundation (BNWF) model is used. The superstructure is modeled using an inelastic single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system model. Nonlinear SSI systems representing various combinations of unconfined compressive strengths and shear wave velocities are considered in the analysis. A set of strong ground motions recorded at sites with soft to stiff soils is used for considering the record-to-record variability of IDRs. It is observed that IDRs for nonlinear SSI systems are sensitive to the strength and the stiffness properties of both the soil and the structure. For the case of SSI systems on the top of cohesive soils, the compressive strength of the soil has a significant impact on the IDRs, which cannot be captured by considering only the shear wave velocity of the soil. Based on the results of nonlinear time-history analysis, a new equation is proposed for estimating the mean and the dispersion of IDRs of SSI systems depending on the characteristic properties of the supporting soil, dimensions of the foundation, and properties of the superstructure. A probabilistic framework is presented for the performance-based seismic design of SSI systems located at sites with cohesive soils.     

A note on a pseudo-natural SSI frequency for coupled soil–pile–structure systems

The notion of a pseudo-natural SSI frequency was introduced in a recent publication by the authors, as the frequency where foundation motion is minimized with respect to the free field surface motion. This frequency is determined analytically in this paper, for a single-degree-of-freedom structure supported on a pile foundation. The analytical solution is compared to numerical results from rigorous finite element analyses for different pile and structural configurations. The relationship between pseudo-natural (f_pSSI) and effective natural SSI frequency (f_SSI) of the coupled system is also analytically quantified. It is concluded that f_pSSI may deviate substantially from f_SSI when a stiff squatty structure is founded on a stiff and/or short end-bearing pile for which foundation translation prevails. Conversely, when a flexible tall structure is supported on a flexible pile, f_pSSI and f_SSI nearly coincide due to dominant base rocking effects. In the latter case the effective natural SSI frequency can be predicted by standard identification procedures even when free-field recordings are missing. Effective damping effects are also discussed.     

A laboratory and theoretical study of the growth of “black smoker” chimneys

Observational evidence suggests that black smoker chimneys are formed by the precipitation of anhydrite from seawater producing a solid framework which is replaced successively by iron, zinc and copper sulfides. We have demonstrated the feasibility of this process using a laboratory model in which KNO₃ is first crystallized from a warm, nearly saturated solution round an inflowing plume of cold K₂CO₃. The chimney grows in length at a nearly constant rate and, at the same time, it thickens as heat conduction causes further crystallization. The dynamic replacement process has been modelled separately, with CuSO₄ passed through a previously formed chimney of KNO₃ and flowing out through the porous walls when the flow rate, and hence the pressure difference, is increased. The formation of chimneys at a line or slit source has also been investigated in the laboratory. It has been shown that, in this case, the slit is quickly blocked off by crystallization over most of its length and that the growth is concentrated at just a few points to form a small number of nearly axisymmetric chimneys.A theory has been developed which predicts both the diameter of the outlet vent and the sign of the pressure difference between the inside and the outside of an axisymmetric chimney of constant internal diameter for a specified flow rate and density difference. It suggests that changes in flow rate or in the internal diameter of the chimney can cause fluid to flow in or out through the porous wall, leading to changes in the position of mineral stability fields within the evolving chimney. The theory has been extended to describe the pressure distribution in tapering interior conduits and it leads to the conclusion that the direction of flow through a porous chimney can reverse along its length.     

高层建筑结构-地基动力相互作用效果的振动台试验对比研究

本文通过对高层建筑结构－地基动力相互作用体系和刚性地基上高层建筑结构的振动台模型试验成果的对比分析，研究了相互作用对结构动力特性和地震反应的影响。结果－地基动力相互作用使结构频率减小，阻尼增大；相互作用体系的振型曲线与刚性地基上结构的振型曲线不同，基础处存在平动和转动；在地震动作用下考虑相互作用的结构加速度、层间剪力、弯矩以及应变通常比刚性地基上的情况小，而位移则比刚性地基上的情况大。     

Growth history of hydrothermal chimneys at EPR 9―10°N: A structural and mineralogical study

Based on structural and mineralogical characteristics of four hydrothermal chimney samples collected by submersible Alvin, growth history and formation environment of hydrothermal chimney at EPR 9―10°N are established. It is shown that there occur two types of hydrothermal chimney with different deposition environments at EPR 9―10°N according to differences in their shape, structure and mineral assemblage: type I chimney forms in an environment with high temperature, low pH and strong reducing hydrothermal focus flow and type II chimney forms in a relatively low temperature, high pH and rich Zn hydrothermal environment. Growth of type I chimney begins with the formation of anhydrite. Subsequently deposition of Cu-Fe-Zn sulphide in various directions of chimneys decides the final structure of this type of chimney. According to observation and analysis of mineral assemblages, the formation process of type I chimney could be divided into three stages from early, middle to late. Changes of temperature and major chemical reaction type in the process of hydrothermal chimney formation are also deduced. Different from type I chimney, quenching crystalline of pyrite and/or crystalline of sphalerite provide the growth foundation of type II chimney in the early stage of chimney formation.     

Extended consecutive modal pushover procedure for estimating seismic responses of one-way asymmetric plan tall buildings considering soil-structure interaction

Performance based design becomes an effective method for estimating seismic demands of buildings. In asymmetric plan tall building the effects of higher modes and torsion are crucial. The consecutive modal pushover (CMP) procedure is one of the procedures that consider these effects. Also in previous studies the influence of soil-structure interaction (SSI) in pushover analysis is ignored. In this paper the CMP procedure is modified for one-way asymmetric plan mid and high-rise buildings considering SSI. The extended CMP (ECMP) procedure is proposed in order to overcome some limitations of the CMP procedure. In this regard, 10, 15 and 20 story buildings with asymmetric plan are studied considering SSI assuming three different soil conditions. Using nonlinear response history analysis under a set of bidirectional ground motion; the exact responses of these buildings are calculated. Then the ECMP procedure is evaluated by comparing the results of this procedure with nonlinear time history results as an exact solution as well as the modal pushover analysis procedure and FEMA 356 load patterns. The results demonstrate the accuracy of the ECMP procedure.     

Growth history of hydrothermal chimneys at EPR 9-10°N: A structural and mineralogical study

Based on structural and mineralogical characteristics of four hydrothermal chimney samples collected by submersible Alvin, growth history and formation environment of hydrothermal chimney at EPR 9-10°N are established. It is shown that there occur two types of hydrothermal chimney with different deposition environments at EPR 9-10°N according to differences in their shape, structure and mineral assemblage: type I chimney forms in an environment with high temperature, low pH and strong reducing hydrothermal focus flow and type II chimney forms in a relatively low temperature, high pH and rich Zn hydrothermal environment. Growth of type I chimney begins with the formation of anhydrite. Subsequently deposition of Cu-Fe-Zn sulphide in various directions of chimneys decides the final structure of this type of chimney. According to observation and analysis of mineral assemblages, the formation process of type I chimney could be divided into three stages from early, middle to late. Changes of temperature and major chemical reaction type in the process of hydrothermal chimney formation are also deduced. Different from type I chimney, quenching crystalline of pyrite and/or crystalline of sphalerite provide the growth foundation of type II chimney in the early stage of chimney forma-tion.     

弯剪型悬臂结构损伤识别的柔度法

本文将高层建筑、烟囱等高柔结构当作弯剪型悬臂结构,提出了一种利用结构动力模态数据识别结构损伤的柔度方法,本文方法的特别是所需模态阶数少,便于实际应用,算例和试验分析表明,本文方法是可行的。     

Fast practical evaluation of soil–structure interaction of embedded structures

A simple and fast evaluation method of soil–structure interaction (SSI) effects of embedded structures is presented via a cone model. The impedances and the effective input motions at the bottom of an embedded foundation are evaluated by means of the cone model. Those quantities are transformed exactly to the corresponding values at the top of the foundation. The evaluated quantities are combined with the super-structure at the top of the foundation. The transfer function amplitude of the interstory drift of a single-degree-of-freedom super-structure is computed for various cases, i.e. no SSI, SSI without embedment, SSI with shallow embedment, SSI with deep embedment. Soil properties are also varied to investigate in more detail the SSI effects of embedded structures. It is found that, while the transfer function amplitude is reduced by the increase of embedment in general, the characteristics of the transfer function amplitude for a very small ground shear wave velocity and large embedment are irregular and complicated.     

Effect of soil on structural response to wind and earthquake

An approximate analytical approach is presented which makes it possible to consider soil properties and footing embedment in the analysis of the response of structures to external excitation such as wind and earthquake. The approach is based on modal analysis and the definition of stiffness and damping due to soil pertinent to each vibration mode. The approach also facilitates the analysis of coupled motions of a footing alone. The analysis of a tall chimney for the effects of gusting wind, vortex shedding and earthquake is used as an example.     

Simulation of the response of base-isolated buildings under earthquake excitations considering soil flexibility

The accurate analysis of the seismic response of isolated structures requires incorporation of the flexibility of supporting soil.However,it is often customary to idealize the soil as rigid during the analysis of such structures.In this paper,seismic response time history analyses of base-isolated buildings modelled as linear single degree-of-freedom(SDOF) and multi degree-of-freedom(MDOF) systems with linear and nonlinear base models considering and ignoring the flexibility of supporting soil are conducted.The flexibility of supporting soil is modelled through a lumped parameter model consisting of swaying and rocking spring-dashpots.In the analysis,a large number of parametric studies for different earthquake excitations with three different peak ground acceleration(PGA) levels,different natural periods of the building models,and different shear wave velocities in the soil are considered.For the isolation system,laminated rubber bearings(LRBs) as well as high damping rubber bearings(HDRBs) are used.Responses of the isolated buildings with and without SSI are compared under different ground motions leading to the following conclusions:(1) soil flexibility may considerably influence the stiff superstructure response and may only slightly influence the response of the flexible structures;(2) the use of HDRBs for the isolation system induces higher structural peak responses with SSI compared to the system with LRBs;(3) although the peak response is affected by the incorporation of soil flexibility,it appears insensitive to the variation of shear wave velocity in the soil;(4) the response amplifications of the SDOF system become closer to unit with the increase in the natural period of the building,indicating an inverse relationship between SSI effects and natural periods for all the considered ground motions,base isolations and shear wave velocities;(5) the incorporation of SSI increases the number of significant cycles of large amplitude accelerations for all the stories,especially for earthquakes with low and moderate PGA levels;and(6) buildings with a linear LRB base-isolation system exhibit larger differences in displacement and acceleration amplifications,especially at the level of the lower stories.     

Considering dynamic soil structure interaction (SSI) effects on seismic isolation retrofit efficiency and the importance of natural frequency ratio

This paper utilizes and expands on existing coupled BEM–FEM (finite element method) methods for the investigation of the effects of soil structure interaction (SSI) on both an un-retrofitted and seismically isolated typical bridge structure. A simple numerical model of the bridge and surrounding soil is formulated and excited by an earthquake excitation. Utilizing Newmark's β FEM solution method along with the closed form B-spline BIRF method, the structural damped period, composite damping ratio, pier relative displacement, and base shear demand are monitored. From these results, the effects of SSI on this structure are identified. Additionally, the importance of the relative rigidity between the soil-foundation system and the bridge structure is also investigated. The results of the studies indicate that the response of the complete structure system considered is affected by the inclusion of SSI effects. Furthermore, the efficiency of the isolation measures designed using fixed base conditions is decreased by considering SSI over a certain relative rigidity range that is quantified using the structure to soil-foundation natural frequency ratio.     

The contribution of the built environment to the ‘free-field’ ground motion in Mexico City

Soil–structure interaction (SSI) effects on building dynamic behaviour have been studied extensively. In comparison, the radiation of waves away from the soil–foundation interface has received little attention. Recent studies point out that SSI in an urban environment can modify the ground motion recorded in the free-field. These modifications will be important when two conditions are met: structures founded on soft soils and coincidence between the vibration periods of the structure and those of the superficial layers. Both conditions are met in Mexico City lake zone. In this study, we investigate SSI effects on ‘free-field’ motion. The data we use consist of microtremors recorded on soft soils in Mexico City, a densely built environment. Our objective was to identify the modifications to free-field ground motion caused by neighbouring structures. Data were analysed using H/V spectral ratios. Large variations in the level of amplification and resonant frequency were determined from microtremors in very closely spaced stations. Our results suggest consistently that free-field ground motion is significantly affected by the presence of neighbouring structures.     

Evaluation of vertical impact factor coefficients for continuous and integral railway bridges under high-speed moving loads

In the railway bridge analysis and design method,dynamic train loads are regarded as static loads enhanced by an impact factor(IF).The IF coefficients for various railway bridges have been reported as a function of span length or frequency of the bridges in Eurocode(2003).However,these IF coefficient values neglect the effects of very high speeds(>200 km/h)and soil-structure interaction(SSI).In this work,a comprehensive study to assess the impact factor coefficients of mid-span vertical displacements for continuous and integral railway bridges subjected to high-speed moving loads is reported.Three different configurations,each for the three-dimensional(3D)continuous and integral bridge,are considered.Also,single-track(1-T)and two-track(2-T)“real train”loading cases for both these bridge types are considered.Subsequently,finite element analysis of the full-scale 3D bridge models,to identify their IF values,considering the effects of SSI for three different soil conditions,is conducted.The IF values obtained from the study for both bridge types are comparable and are greater than the values recommended by Eurocode(2003).The results reveal that with a loss of soil stiffness,the IF value reduces;thus,it confirms the importance of SSI analysis.     

考虑地基土液化影响的桩基高层建筑体系地震反应分析

本文建立了土体－结构体系地震反应分析的混合有限元法，并研究了地基土液化对地震反应的影响。本方法把土体－结构体系简化为一个完整的体系，该体系由梁（柱）单元、剪切杆单元、刚体单元、平面四边形等参单元与三角形单元、界面单元的任意组合来模拟。桩与上部结构材料视为线弹性体，土介质视为非线性材料。土的静应力－应变关系之间的非线性用邓肯一张模型来描述；土的动应力－应变关系之间的非线性和振动孔隙水压力对土的软化效