泥盆系弗拉阶／法门阶之交米兰柯维奇旋回及高分辨率地层对比

在广西泥盆系弗拉阶－法门阶（F－F）之交盆地相－斜坡相碳酸盐地层（桂林杨堤剖面，阳朔龙门剖面，德保都安剖面和横县六景剖面）中识别出超层序组、层序组、层序和纹层4级旋回层，它们在牙形石带内的级序结构、数量关系和排列顺序在时间上持续、稳定，在空间上可进行跨相、跨盆地的远距离对比。我们的资料表明，超层序组、层序组、层序和纹层旋回分别相当于长偏心率、偏心率、斜度或岁差和亚米兰柯维奇旋回。泥盆纪时它们的周期值分别为400，000年100，000年、33，333年或16，667年和8，000－17，000年。长偏心率与偏心率、偏心率与斜度、偏心率与岁差的比例关系分别为1：4、1：3和1：6。与第四纪相比，泥盆纪时斜度和岁差周期变短，偏心率周期基本保持恒定，表明地球自转至少自泥盆纪以来变慢。在研究剖面上，F－F事件前后超层序组与层序组间的级序结构存在明显的差别，即F－F事件前为1：4，F－F事件后为1：3。造成这种变化的原因可能与F－F事件期间多次陨击事件对地球长偏心率周期的影响有关。利用米兰柯维奇旋回的研究结果可使弗拉阶－法门阶之交年代地层的划分对比达到十万年级和万年级的分辨率，并可对上泥盆统国际通用的标准牙形石带进行数字标定，即上rhenana带、linguiformis带、下、中、上triangularis带的时间延续分别为0．6Ma、0．8Ma、0．3Ma、0．3Ma和0．3Ma。在十万年级和万年级分辨率基础上弗拉期－法门期之交的海平面变化不具一致性和同步性。     

弗拉期—法门期(F-F)之交事件在广西全州地区的沉积学响应

晚泥盆世弗拉期—法门期之交,地球环境急剧变化.广西作为中国南方泥盆纪沉积最为发育的地区,对该事件具有良好的记录.从广西全州地区东山剖面发育的一套海相碳酸盐岩为主夹细颗粒陆源碎屑岩序列的岩相、沉积微相及生物化石入手,厘定研究区内弗拉阶—法门阶界线,揭示研究区内与弗拉期—法门期事件相关的沉积记录,进而探讨当时的海平面变化情...     

泥盆系法门阶四分已成定局

<正> 法门阶亚阶的划分是国际地层委员会泥盆系分会近年来讨论的重点(王成源,1994、2003)。德国早已组建了晚泥盆世亚阶划分的工作组,提出了德国的法门阶的划分方案。他们一致认为法门阶应当三分,即以早Palmatolepis marginifera带的底界为中法门阶的底界,早Palmatolepis expansa带的底界为晚法门亚阶的底界。比利时学者(Streel et al.,2002)极力主张法门阶四分,建立最晚法门亚阶,     

全球泥盆纪生物礁演化及其影响因素

泥盆纪是地史时期海洋生物迅速演化的时期之一,以发育显生宙以来地球上最大规模生物礁生态系统及其彻底崩溃为重要特征。泥盆纪的生物礁经历了吉维特-弗拉期和法门期的繁盛,造礁生物分别以珊瑚-层孔虫和菌藻类为主导;在吉维特中晚期、弗拉-法门期(F/F)之交和泥盆纪-石炭纪(D/C)之交,则遭受多次生物灭绝事件的打击,随后在石炭纪的杜内早-中期生物礁基本消失,而后生动物礁直到13 Myr之后(维宪期)才再次出现。通过最新的地球化学资料研究发现,中泥盆世海水表层温度适宜、大陆风化程度较低。因此,全球后生动物礁规模空前,异常繁盛;而晚泥盆世海水表层温度及大陆风化程度较高,导致法门期后生动物礁衰落,而菌藻类生物礁繁盛。通过灭绝事件的详细研究表明,Taghanic事件中海平面的快速上升、温度的急剧升高造成珊瑚和层孔虫消失,后生动物礁数量大幅减少;Kellwasser事件中的温度突变、全球性海平面升降以及缺氧等因素则引发了后生动物礁彻底崩溃;而Hangenberg事件中短暂复苏的后生动物礁受温度降低和海平面下降的影响而最终消失。因此,在众多影响泥盆纪生物礁发育的因素中,全球性的温度和海平面变化占据主导地位。     

湘中佘田桥剖面上泥盆统弗拉斯阶地层研究新进展

湘中佘田桥剖面的佘田桥阶大致与弗拉斯阶范围一致 ,其下为吉维阶泥质灰岩 ,含腕足类 Emanuella tak-wanensis等及竹节石 Viriatellina kienelensis等。佘田桥阶自下而上分别为榴江组、蒸水河组、老江冲组。榴江组主要是紫红色粉砂质泥岩 /粉砂岩互层、底部为黑色薄层硅质岩。蒸水河组下部以灰黑色及暗灰色钙质泥页岩为主 ,含介形虫 Bertillonella erecta、B.cicatricosa?、Franklinella calcarata、Entomozoe(N ehdentomis) tenera及菊石 Meso-beloceras?sp.;上部泥质灰岩、似瘤状灰岩、粉砂质泥岩含牙形石 Palmatolepis cf.semichatovae、大型菊石 Mantico-ceras sp.及介形虫 Entomozoe(N ehdentomis) pseudorichterina。老江冲组以泥页岩为主 ,顶部附近则出现一些泥质灰岩、似瘤状泥灰岩层 ,产丰富的小嘴贝类、无洞贝类及弓石燕类等腕足动物 ,少量海绵 (?)及珊瑚等。佘田桥阶的顶界与弗拉斯阶的顶界一致 ,即以无洞贝类和大量四射珊瑚的绝灭为标志 ,而 Yannanellina腕足动物群的出现开始于锡矿山阶 (或法门阶 )。综合各类化石资料 ,佘田桥剖面的榴江组大致相当于牙形石 falsiovalis带— punctata带 ,蒸水河组相当于 L ower hassi带— L ower rhenana带 ,老江冲组相当于 U pper rhenana带— linguiform     

弗拉斯—法门期之间的生物绝灭事件

晚泥分世弗拉斯—法门期(Frasnian—Famennian)之间存在一次全球性生物绝灭事件(简称F—F事件).本文简介了F—F事件的生物绝灭、事件界线、事件成因及近年国内研究情况弗拉斯末期,大量的海生无脊椎动物,尤其是热带、亚热带浅水区造礁及附来礁生物绝灭.绝灭的生物包括层孔虫、珊瑚、腕足类、竹节石、三叶虫、菊石及浮游植物等门类中的很大一部分成员.F－F件发生在牙形石的palmatolepis gigas带和Palmatolepis triangularis带之间,最可能发生在Palmatolepis gigas最上亚带.事件发生的原因有各种不同解释:1)海平面变化说;2)古气候变冷说;3)天文事件说等.目前国内对F—F事件的研究较少,侯鸿飞、王士涛(1985)曾总结了华南等地F—F界线附近的生物群变化.笔者等研究了西秦岭中带F—F事件,探讨了这次事件的可能成因.     

青藏高原隆升动力学与阿尔金断裂

青藏高原最晚一期也是最强烈的一期隆升发生在1-0.8Ma,与印度洋中脊三联点附近的“亚澳”陨击事件有关,陨击事件引起印度洋的快速扩张并导致印度板块在锡瓦利克带的强烈（A型）俯冲,正是这次俯冲引起了青藏高原及其外围山脉的快速隆升,中国西北的盆-山地貌因此而形成,其中东昆仑山推覆隆升近3000m,向北推挤近400km,是柴达木盆地,河西走廊新生界构造变形的主因,因此,“亚澳”陨击事件的影响,提供了青藏高原最晚一期隆升和中亚与中国西部大陆构造形成的大陆动力学背景;根据近年对阿尔金断裂带内同变形期新生矿（102-85Ma)近于同步,其累积错距达350-400km,晚白垩世一新生代同步错移了两侧原有的构造带和原型盆地。这为中国西部找矿,找油气的战略评估提供了一个新的思路。     

广西桂林杨堤晚泥盆世弗拉期-法门期之交上、下 Kellwasser事件的差异与海洋生产力变化

对广西桂林晚泥盆世弗拉期-法门期(Frasnian-Famennian,简称F-F)之交杨堤剖面的碳酸盐岩碳同位素、生物成因 Ba、Al、Si和氧化还原指标的综合分析,表明该地区F-F之交生产力较低,且两次Kellwasser事件具有不同特点:下Kellwasser (LKW)事件时期并未出现明显缺氧环境,生态系统中初级生产力和最终生产力均相对较高,δ13C小幅度正偏是由生产力上升 引起;上Kellwasser(UKW)事件时期海平面上升,陆源输入物极少,氧含量急剧下降,初级生产力有所增加,最终生产力锐减, 此时的δ13C大幅正偏是由于缺氧条件下有机碳缓慢积累埋藏保存所致.      

华南泥盆纪海平面变化节律及圈层耦合关系

在加里东不整合面之上的华南纪盆系中,可识别出20个正层序和相对应的海平面变化旋回,其中下泥盆统9个,中泥盆统5.5个,上泥盆统5.5个。它们可归并为4个正层序组,最大海泛面分别位于sulcatus带(D_1~2),perbonus带(D_1~3),中、上varcus带(D_2~2)和gigas带(D_3~1)。对埃姆斯期和吉维期4个海平面变化的瞬间状态,进行了瞬时古地理再造。华南泥盆纪海平面变化节律可分为三类:自节律;全球性他节律、区域性他节律;耦合节律,它们分别发育于法门期;布拉格期、艾费尔期;洛赫科夫期、埃姆斯期、吉维期、弗拉斯期和法门期/弗拉斯期之交(F/F)事件期。处于相对干暖和宁静期的布拉格期和艾费尔期全球性他节律海平面变化的原因,难以用冰川和构造机制解释,可能与海洋盆地容积或地球体积的脉动膨缩有关。F/F事件期的耦合节律海平面变化是地内外因素、圈层协同行为和耦合效应的灵敏标志。     

藏高珠穆朗玛峰地区三叠系层序地层及沉积演化：—从陆表海盆地到裂谷盆地

珠峰地区的三叠系形成于大陆拉伸背景。自下而上可划分为12个三级沉积层序和5个层序组，分属于2个中层序。发生在Induan阶初期（约250Ma)，Anisian阶早期（约239Ma),Carnian阶初期（约231Ma）和Norian早期（约223Ma)的4个海侵事件最为重要。可作跨越板块的地层对比标志。藏南地区在三叠纪经历了从泛大陆到大陆裂谷的构造演化，早一中三叠世以陆表海盆地浅水环境为主，晚三叠世以深水断陷盆地为特征。晚三叠世晚期，与长期全球海平面下降相伴随，过量的陆源碎屑输入造成该地区由深水盆地转为河流作用明显的三角洲平原环境。     

Cephalopod limestone deposition on a shallow pelagic ridge: the Tafilalt Platform (upper Devonian, eastern Anti-Atlas, Morocco)

As a result of early Variscan tectonic movements and of differential subsidence, a platform and basin topography was created along the northern margin of the Sahara Craton during the late Devonian. In the Moroccan Anti-Atlas Mountains, the Tafilalt Platform is an approximately N-S running ridge which developed since the late Middle Devonian. It separated a slowly subsiding shallow basin in the east (Tafilalt Basin) from a rapidly subsiding furrow in the west (Mader Basin). Platform deposits are characterized by highly reduced thicknesses, shallow subtidal to supratidal deposits in the late Frasnian and by unconformities at the Lower/Upper Frasnian and the Frasnian/Famennian boundaries. After a local transgression over emergent areas in the north, water depth probably never reached more than several tens to about 100 m in the lower Famennian. Cephalopod limestones of this age, deposited on the platform, represent a very diverse facies pattern comprising quartz-rich brachiopod coquinas, crinoidal limestones, thick-bedded cephalopod limestones and nodular limestones. Sedimentation rates ranged from 1 to 5 mm/ 1000 yr. In the late Famennian more uniform marl and nodular limestone facies suggest slightly deeper environments. Platform margins are characterized by higher rates of subsidence, debris flow deposits and slump structures. In the relatively shallow Tafilalt Basin, marls with intercalated nodular limestones were deposited. In the Mader Basin, sandy and calcareous turbidites suggest deeper water conditions in the late Devonian. During the Strunian/Tournaisian the whole area was overwhelmed by a thick deltaic sequence. The general facies distribution is in agreement with depositional models of other Upper Devonian and Lower Carboniferous cephalopod limestones in the European Variscan orogenic belts. In all these cases, condensed cephalopod limestones occupy a distinct palaeogeographic position in predictable facies sequences that reflect pre-orogenic phases in the Variscan geodynamic cycle. Moreover, close parallels exist with condensed sequences in the Triassic and Jurassic that occur in a very similar position within the Alpine orogenic cycle.     

Middle to Late Devonian basin evolution in the Rügen area,NE Germany

The Middle to lower Upper Devonian succession of the Rügen Depression in NE Germany consists of largely clastic sediments, whereas the Upper Devonian deposits are mixed carbonate and clastic. Petrographic and geochemical data suggest that the sediments were deposited in a cratonic or recycled setting. Deposition was largely confined to a fault-bounded basin, located between two structural highs. During the Devonian, the Rügen area underwent evolution from a continental and marginal marine area during the Eifelian-early Frasnian to a deeper marine environment during the late Frasnian-early Famennian. By the latest Famennian, an open-shelf carbonate-facies environment was established.     

四川龙门山甘溪泥盆纪生态地层、层序地层与海平面变化

龙门山甘溪剖面是我国泥盆系重要典型剖面之一,倍受中外同行关注。本文着重对生态地层、事件地层、层序地层进行研究,为研究全球海平面变化提供区域背景资料。龙门山甘溪剖面含十分丰富的底栖生物化石,从洛赫柯夫阶-弗拉斯阶自下而上可识别出24个腕足动物群落,另外还建立了若干礁复体群落和浮游群落
本文对以上群落的特征、性质、分异度、成分、底栖组合及其与沉积环境的关系作了分析和讨论,并识别了11个海进海退事件(生物的或非生物的)
本区泥盆系是加里东构造旋回后的第一个沉积盖层,属海平面主体上升和海侵同步条件下的旋回超覆地层,由砂质海岸环境向碳酸盐台地环境推进,构成了区内泥盆纪沉积层序序列的组合特征。根据海平面的变化及其相旋回的变迁,划分出6个三级沉积层序。6个沉积层序代表6次海平面的相对升降周期,大致相当于Vail,P.R.(1977)划分的三级地层旋回的海平面变化周期(延续时限1-12Ma),包括4个较大的海平面上升周期与2个较大的海平面下降周期,即洛赫柯夫期、布拉格晚期至埃姆斯早期,吉维中期及弗拉斯早、中期的海平面上升期与艾费尔期中晚期至法门期的海平面下隆期。
上述沉积层序特征和海平面变化,说明区内泥盆纪台缘断陷盆地的形成经历了由陆向海转化和盆地发展演化过程,反映了上扬子地台西缘陆架沉积发展的历史大致可划分为:盆地的雏形阶段(碎屑岩陆架的形成阶段),盆地的发展阶段(碎屑岩与碳酸盐岩混积陆架的形成阶段)和盆地形成与消亡不同性质的三个阶段。它们的形成与演化主要是构造断陷活动和龙门山海水不断向东侵进、古特提斯海北支向东扩展的结果,展示了由滨岸陆架转变为碳酸盐台地,由陆源碎屑充填转化为碳酸盐岩沉积的发展史。     

泥盆纪右江盆地演化与层序充填响应

早泥盆世时东特提斯洋沿金沙江—哀牢山缝合带逐渐向东打开 ,广南—靖西等基底断裂与板块边界断裂——金沙江—哀牢山断裂带平行展布和同步演化 ,边界断裂的向东开裂扩张 ,广南—靖西等基底断裂活动亦逐渐加剧 ,导致右江盆地由陆内裂陷盆地向被动陆缘裂谷盆地演化。据构造活动的强弱和盆地充填物的特征 ,将右江盆地的演化分为洛赫科夫期至布拉格期的陆内裂陷盆地阶段、埃姆斯期—艾费尔期的拉张发展阶段、吉维期至弗拉斯期的强烈拉张阶段、法门期的充填补齐阶段 ,后三者组成被动陆缘裂谷盆地阶段。不同次级盆地的不同阶段 ,其构造沉降和海平面升降幅度不一样 ,层序发育样式各异 ,其中孤立碳酸盐岩台地层序发育主要受控于相对海平面变化和碳酸盐生产率 ,而台盆层序发育则受构造活动、海平面变化、台缘重力流和沉积物供应的综合影响。据此 ,将该区泥盆系划分为两个 级层序 ,18个 级层序 ,并建立了各演化阶段的层序充填模型。这种层序充填的差异性正是对盆地构造演化和全球海平面变化的响应。     

广西全州地区晚泥盆世牙形石和腕足类生物地层

广西东北部泥盆系发育良好,化石丰富,对研究中国华南地区泥盆纪生物地层具有重要意义。对广西全州地区东山剖面上泥盆统佘田桥组、锡矿山组和孟公坳组进行了系统的化石采集及室内分析,共获得104枚牙形石化石和34件腕足类化石。经鉴定,牙形石共21属19种,腕足类化石共6属9种。根据化石种属在东山剖面上的分布,自下而上可划分出8个牙形石带:Icriodus brecis带,Schmidtognathus hermanni-Polygnathus cristatus带,Schmidtognatus wittekindtii带,Palmatolepis linguiformis带,Palmatolepis triangularis带,Palmatolepis rhomboidea带,Icriodus cornutus带和Palmatolepis gracilis manca-Rhodalepis polylophodontiformis带,指示研究区内佘田桥组、锡矿山组、孟公坳组分别对应国际年代地层单位的弗拉斯阶上部、法门阶下部和法门阶中上部,并通过Palmatolepis triangularis的首现确立了该地区弗拉斯阶和法门阶(F-F)的界线;在东山剖面共划分出2个腕足类组合带:弓石燕(Cyrtospirifer)组合带和云南贝(Yunnanella)-帐幕石燕(Tenticosififer)组合带,它们分别与东山剖面中牙形石Palmatolepis falsiovalis-Palmatolepis linguiformis带、Palmatolepis rhomboidea-Palmatolepis marginifera带对应。     

Microbial mounds prior to the Frasnian‐Famennian mass extinctions,Hantang, Guilin,South China

Late Frasnian mounds of the Yunghsien Formation, Guilin, South China, developed as part of the Guilin platform, mostly in reef‐flat and platform margin settings. Microbial mounds in platform margin settings at Hantang, about 10 km west of Guilin, contain Frasnian biota, such as Stachyodes and Kuangxiastraea and, thus, occur below the Frasnian‐Famennian mass extinction boundary. Platform margin facies were dominated by microbes, algae and receptaculitids. Massive corals and stromatoporoids are not common and rarely show reef‐building functions as they did in Givetian time. The margin mounds are composed of brachiopod‐receptaculitid cementstone, and a variety of boundstones that contain Rothpletzella, Renalcis, thrombolite and stromatolite. Other microbial communities include Girvanella, Izhella, Ortonella and Wetheredella. Solenoporoid algae are abundant locally. Zebra structures and neptunian dykes are well‐developed at some intervals. Pervasive early cementation played an important role in lithification of the microbial boundstones and rudstones. Frasnian reefs of many regions of the world were constructed by stromatoporoids and corals, although a shift to calcimicrobe‐dominated frameworks occurred before the Famennian. However, the exact ages of many Frasnian margin outcrops are poorly constrained owing to difficulties dating shallow carbonate facies. The Hantang mounds represent a microbe‐dominated reef‐building community with rare skeletal reef builders, consistent with major Late Devonian changes in reef composition, diversity and guild structure occurring before the end of the Frasnian. A similar transition occurred in the Canning Basin of Western Australia, but coeval successions in North America, Western Europe and the northern Urals are either less well‐known or represent different bathymetric settings. The transition in reef‐building style below the Frasnian‐Famennian boundary is documented here in the two best exposed successions on two continents, which may have been global. Set in the larger context of Late Devonian and Mississippian microbial reef‐building, the Hantang mounds help to demonstrate that controls on microbial reef communities differed from those on larger skeletal reef biota. Calcimicrobes replaced stromatoporoids as major reef builders before the Frasnian‐Famennian extinction event, and increasing stromatoporoid diversity towards the end of the Famennian did not result in a resurgence of skeletal reef frameworks. Calcimicrobes dominated margin facies through the Famennian, but declined near the Devonian‐Carboniferous boundary. Stromatolite and thrombolite facies, which occurred behind the mound margin at Hantang, rose to dominate Mississippian shallow‐water reef frameworks with only a minor resurgence of the important Frasnian calcimicrobe Renalcis in the Visean when well‐skeletonized organisms (corals) also became volumetrically significant frame builders again.     

广西象州中坪马鞍山剖面上泥盆统弗拉斯阶/法门阶(F/F)界线的研究

笔者在广西象州中坪马鞍山剖面上泥盆统“融县组”中部,首次发现了地层连续、岩性均一、牙形石带齐全的弗拉斯阶/法门阶界线层。这一界线层完全符合国际泥盆纪地层分会(SDS 1983)作出的关于划分弗拉斯阶/法门阶界线条件的决议。并与被誉为盆地相最佳剖面的西德Schmidt剖面(SDS Newsl.1986,no.1,Doc.C)的牙形石序列基本一致。无论是从岩石的均一性或是牙形石生物的连续性上,马鞍山剖面完全可与西德Schmidt剖面媲美,它是目前国内研究弗拉斯阶/法门阶界线的理想剖面之一。本文除了对这一界线进     

Quantitative Evaluation of the Sea-level Drop at the End-Permian: Based on Reefs

The amplitude of pre-Quaternary sea level drop, H, can be calculated by using the formula H = D + To, where To is the original thickness from the top of the tidal deposits on the reef core to the bottom of the tidal deposits on the reef front, or to the bottom of the ancient meteoric vadose zone, or to the edge of the mixed-water dolostone zone. The identity and similarity between the sea-level drop amplitudes calculated from different reefs far away from each other indicates that such sea-level changes are eustatic rather than relative changes. Evidence of an end-Permian sea-level drop has been found on the Changxingian (i.e. the end of the Palaeofusulina zone) reefs at Ziyun in South China, including algal laminated deposits, sabkha-related dolostone, desiccation cracks, dissolution collapse breccia. According to calculation based on the meteoric dissolution zone of the reef-core sequence at Ziyun, Guizhou province, the amplitude of the sea-level drop at the end-Permian is about 89.3 m. Calculation vi     

Carbonate platform evolution: from a bioconstructed platform margin to a sand-shoal system (Devonian, Guilin, South China)

ABSTRACT The depositional organization and architecture of the middle–late Devonian Yangdi rimmed carbonate platform margin in the Guilin area of South China were related to oblique, extensional faulting in a strike‐slip setting. The platform margin shows two main stages of construction in the late Givetian to Frasnian, with a bioconstructed margin evolving into a sand‐shoal system. In the late Givetian, the platform margin was rimmed with microbial buildups composed mainly of cyanobacterial colonies (mostly Renalcis and Epiphyton). These grew upwards and produced an aggradational (locally slightly retrogradational) architecture with steep foreslope clinoforms. Three depositional sequences (S3–S5) are recognized in the upper Givetian strata, which are dominated by extensive microbialites. Metre‐scale depositional cyclicity occurs in most facies associations, except in the platform‐margin buildups and upper foreslope facies. In the latest Givetian (at the top of sequence S5), relative platform uplift (± subaerial exposure) and associated rapid basin subsidence (probably a block‐tilting effect) caused large‐scale platform collapse and slope erosion to give local scalloped embayments along the platform margin and the synchronous demise of microbial buildups. Subsequently, sand shoals and banks composed of ooids and peloids and, a little later, stromatoporoid buildups on the palaeohighs, developed along the platform margin, from which abundant loose sediment was transported downslope to form gravity‐flow deposits. Another strong tectonic episode caused further platform collapse in the early Frasnian (at the top of sequence S6), leading to large‐scale breccia release and the death of the stromatoporoid buildups. Siliceous facies (banded cherts and siliceous shales) were then deposited extensively in the basin centre as a result of the influx of hydrothermal fluids. The platform‐margin sand‐shoal/bank system, possibly with gullies on the slope, persisted into the latest Frasnian until the restoration of microbial buildups. Four sequences (S6–S9), characterized by abundant sand‐shoal deposits on the margin and gravity‐flow and hemipelagic deposits on the slope, are distinguished in the Frasnian strata. Smaller‐scale depositional cyclicity is evident in all facies associations across the platform–slope–basin transect. The distinctive depositional architecture and evolution of this Yangdi Platform are interpreted as having been controlled mainly by regional tectonics with contributions from eustasy, environmental factors, oceanographic setting, biotic and sedimentary fabrics.