GEOPHYSICAL STUDIES OF WATER LEAKAGES FROM RESERVOIRS*

Considerable water leakages from reservoirs make it difficult to attain the planned storage capacity. In some cases water leakages give rise to suffusion followed by catastrophes. Until recently methods for locating water leakages were extremely imperfect. Geophysical methods offer good prospects in this direction. For solving these problems, it is effective to use streaming potential measurements, water flow rate observations and thermometry. Laboratory experiments were carried out in connection with the fact that water leakages from reservoirs are characterized by negative anomalies of natural currents; the more filtration discharge, the higher these anomalies are. As a result, the relationship governing the intensity of streaming potential and sand granulometric composition, electrolyte concentrations and other factors were revealed. To determine the velocity of water flowing to leakage sites, a special device, based on the relationship between the temperature of a heated body and its resistance, is applied. This device simultaneously makes it possible to measure the water medium temperature. Observations at reservoir sites were effected by moving along the reservoir non-polarizable potential electrodes and water velocity devices. Recordings were carried out automatically by the recording device of the logging apparatus. Under the conditions of ice cover on water surfaces, measurements were made through separate points by digging holes in the ice cover. Practical field observations were carried out at reservoir sites located in regions where fissured massive rocks as well as loose sediments predominate. In the first case field experiments were carried out in alpine reservoirs, in Armenia. The major water leakages were found to be concentrated on the right bank of the reservoir. In this connection it was not only possible to locate water leakage sites, but also to evaluate their relative intensity. These data were used for planning antifiltration measures. In the second case water leakages from a reservoir located in Uzbekistan in the submontane part of the Pamirs were studied. Streaming potential anomalies and high benthonic flow rates made it possible to discover high filtrations in the base and walls of the dam. Further perfection of these methods should not only permit the determination of water leakage sites and their relative intensity, but also filtration discharges in absolute units.     

Hydrogeochemical interpretation of water seepage through a geological barrier at a reservoir boundary

A geological barrier such as a mountain ridge surrounding a large reservoir generally plays some part in preventing water leakage from the reservoir, but water flows out naturally according to the hydraulic gradient because the reservoir water level is typically higher than that outside. The hydrogeological, geochemical, and isotopic properties of water in the Daechung Dam area were analysed to characterize the source and the phenomenon of the groundwater flowing through the geological barrier. Our geochemical analysis showed that the concentrations of anions and cations tended to increase, due to the longer residence time of the water, as the distance between the sampling site and reservoir increased. Elevation differences (calculated using oxygen and hydrogen isotopes) between the highest and lowest sampling sites ranged between 350 and 420 m based on the altitude effect on isotope concentration, but the actual difference was only 35 m. These results, including analysis of the rate of water seepage from the reservoir (ca. 2.3% to 14.4% of natural recharge), indicate the possibility that groundwater in the study area originated from reservoir water that was derived from upstream water and rainfall in the high mountainous area of the upper watershed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

水库蓄放水对库底岩石介质弹性波速影响的数值模拟

为了解水库水体加、卸载及渗透过程中,库底岩石介质有效应力变化对弹性波速的影响,以及弹性波速变化与孔隙压力、有效应力变化之间的定量关系,以四川省紫坪铺水库为例,在前期已建立库区地质构造与水文地质结构模型,并推导出岩石介质变形与流体渗流耦合数学模型的基础上,进一步建立了有效应力对岩石弹性波速影响的数学模型,利用有限元方法定量计算了库底岩石介质的孔隙压力、附加有效应力和弹性波速的变化。结果表明:在水库水体加、卸载及渗透过程中,地下岩石介质弹性波速增量值的变化并不明显,最大变幅仅为±0.013km/s,变化范围主要集中在库底5km以上的局部区域;弹性波速增量值与附加有效应力变化同步,与水库水位变化形态相似;不同观测点弹性波速变化量的大小与埋藏位置、深度及附加有效应力的变化幅度有关,同一观测点,弹性纵波波速变化幅度大于弹性横波波速。文中数值模拟的结果与一些学者通过环境噪声方法获得的紫坪铺水库附近区域相对波速变化的反演结果在变化形态上大体一致,但变化幅度略有差异。     

Recent studies on surface water–groundwater relationships at hydro‐projects in India using environmental isotopes

Environmental isotopes (²H or D, ¹⁸O, ³H), along with geology, hydrochemistry and in situ physicochemical parameters (EC, T, DO, pH) were employed to study surface water (reservoir, lake)–groundwater (spring) relationships at (1) Nagewadi, a minor irrigation project in the State of Maharashtra, Western India; (2) Kanhirapuzha reservoir in the State of Kerala, Southern India and (3) Ghatghar Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Project in the State of Maharashtra, Western India for the purpose of understanding the seepage/leakage and its associated problems. The studies concluded that the springs found downstream of the Nagewadi project originate from the reservoir and not from the abutments or shallow aquifers. The Kanhirapuzha reservoir receives a substantial base‐flow component compared to riverine inputs. The reason for the water‐logging problem at a nearby downstream village during the non‐summer periods is due to the change in the upstream groundwater flow direction under reservoir filling conditions and is not due to reservoir leakage. Most of the springs in the approach tunnel to the underground power house of the Ghatghar Project originate from the lower reservoir and not from the upper reservoir or the overburden rock matrix. The above case studies illustrate the diversity of environmental isotope applications in surface water (reservoir, lake)–groundwater (spring) relationships related to sustainability of hydro‐projects. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Delineating ground water recharge from leaking irrigation canals using water chemistry and isotopes

Across the Great Plains irrigation canals are used to transport water to cropland. Many of these canals are unlined, and leakage from them has been the focus of an ongoing legal, economic, and philosophical debate as to whether this lost water should be considered waste or be viewed as a beneficial and reasonable use since it contributes to regional ground water recharge. While historically there has been much speculation about the impact of canal leakage on local ground water, actual data are scarce. This study was launched to investigate the impact of leakage from the Interstate Canal, in the western panhandle of Nebraska, on the hydrology and water quality of the local aquifer using water chemistry and environmental isotopes. Numerous monitoring wells were installed in and around a small wetland area adjacent to the canal, and ground water levels were monitored from June 1992 until January 1995. Using the water level data, the seepage loss from the canal was estimated. In addition, the canal, the monitoring wells, and several nearby stock and irrigation wells were sampled for inorganic and environmental isotope analysis to assess water quality changes, and to determine the extent of recharge resulting from canal leakage. The results of water level monitoring within study wells indicates a rise in local ground water levels occurs seasonally as a result of leakage during periods when the canal is filled. This rise redirects local ground water flow and provides water to nearby wetland ecosystems during the summer months. Chemical and isotopic results were used to delineate canal, surface, and ground water and indicate that leaking canal water recharges both the surface alluvial aquifer and upper portions of the underlying Brule Aquifer. The results of this study indicate that lining the Interstate Canal could lower ground water levels adjacent to the canal, and could adversely impact the local aquifer.     

四川紫坪铺水库区水文地质与工程地质条件研究

分析了四川紫坪铺水库坝区和库区的水文地质和工程地质条件。由于库区内基岩山区为强烈上升区，地形切割深，高差大，各种不良工程地质现象发育，虽然不致于影响水库的正常工作，但也应引起充分注意。水库畜水后，渗漏问题对水库区和坝区影响较大，应采取相应措施解决；水库蓄水后，库水有可能下渗，应加强对该水库诱发地震的监测和研究。     

Results of dipole electric sounding in the area of the Chirkey water reservoir after its filling

The analysis of the data of variations of the apparent electric resistivity of rocks (AR) in the area of the Chirkey HES has been carried out for the period after the water reservoir was filled. For measurements the method of dipole electric sounding has been used with location of potential dipoles around the water reservoir with a distance between them of 5.2–11.3km. The analysis of the data obtained for the period of observations (1976–1988) has shown that the filling of the water reservoir affected the environment for a long time. After it was filled (1975), at different observation points located around the water reservoir a decrease of 1.6–2.4 times was registered in the AR over the period from 1976–1988. This is connected with the process of inundation of the rock mass, which continued for more than 14 years. The process of water filtering into the surrounding rock mass was complicated; that is, it varied in time and space. At the initial stage of the reservoir filling the AR variations of a high amplitude (30–40%) were observed. These variations are considered to be connected with the seismic regime of the area of the water reservoir. A synchronous decrease in the AR, registered at the receiver points was followed by an increase of the number of the earthquakes of energetic class (K = 10). The given anomalous data are connected by an increase in the water filtration into fractured zones, whose filtration features change on being affected by tectonic stresses.     

库水降落作用下无基坑振冲土石坝的渗流安全分析

无基坑振冲加密施工是一种比较先进的土石坝建筑方法。以海南省三亚市西部的宁远河中下游河段的大隆水利枢纽工程土石坝为研究对象,对其进行准确分区,以饱和-非饱和渗流理论为基础,通过三维有限元数值方法,模拟库水下降作用下的土石坝渗流场,并对各级水位下的孔压、流速及流向进行分析,评价大坝的渗流安全。研究结果表明：采用无基坑振冲加密施工方法后,坝体内填砂砾振冲层形成上游排水通道,在坝前水位骤降工况下,防渗土料内有效流速方向和渗透压力的方向由近水平的指向坝面变为竖直向下指向填砂砾振冲层,而且有效流速明显变大,利于渗透水通过填砂砾振冲层排到下游,有利于上游坝体稳定。     

Water quality effects of seepage from earthen dams

Analyses of surface and seepage waters from selected floodwater retarding structures in west-central Oklahoma, U.S.A. show the salinity of seepage to be several times greater than that of the impounded waters. The increases in concentration of the several chemical components are not proportional. This phenomenon appears to be caused largely by simple solution, which is closely related to the chemical character of the geologic formation that provides the reservoir site and the earth fill of the dam. Concentration of certain chemical components in the seepage water progressively decreases as the structure ages. This is probably a function of depletion, which is related to the amounts and solubility of the parent materials subjected to solution. In contrast, the concentration of certain other components, such as iron and calcium, increases with time. The chemical activities within the accumulating mud on the bottom of the reservoir apparently cause these increases.     

Assessment of groundwater inflow in urban territories

Analytical and numerical methods are proposed for the calculation of water inflow into construction pits under various geological—engineering and hydrogeological conditions at the construction site. Water inflow into the pit is shown to depend not only on lateral seepage but also on the leakage from underlying aquifers at appropriate parameters of their interaction. Under certain natural conditions, the most efficient method for construction pit draining at low water yield of soils in the construction area are light wellpoint systems, the capacity and layout of which is determined by the potential inflow through the pit contour. The results of analytical and numerical calculations for the assessment of groundwater inflow into a pit are given, and light wellpoint systems are shown to be effective under different combinations of natural and engineering conditions.     

蓄水引起的地基垂直形变的总效应和丹江水库地震

水库蓄水后,水体质量荷载引起地基岩石介质产生静力学形变效应.发生地震的水库,由于震源区岩石介质扩容,也会引起地基岩石介质的形变.本文同时考虑了这两种效应.水体质量荷载的静力学形变总效应包括:荷载引起的地基岩石介质的静态弹性形变,质量引起的重力等位面形变以及静态弹性形变所引起的重力等位面形变.岩石介质扩容效应在一定阶段会引起地基岩石介质的膨胀隆起,这种隆起形变同样也引起重力场变化.采用上述模型分析了丹江水库的水准测量成果,确定了该地区地基岩石介质的 Lame 常数,分析了地面垂直形变与地震的关系,从而认为使用该模型分析蓄水后库区的地面的垂直形变,可以为预报水库区地震提取必要的信息.      

APPLICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS FOR STUDYING THE TECHNICAL STATUS OF EARTH DAMS*

Earth dams are constructed on a wide scale for hydrotechnical and reclamative purposes. However, the great water permeability of soils and their bad gradation are frequently responsible for the development of mechanical suffusion and other phenomena resulting in dam destruction. Geophysical observations allow under certain conditions to forecast the development of adverse factors. They thus are, as practice shows, an important tool to observe the technical status of dams. The difference in propagation velocities of elastic waves in the zone of aeration and full saturation determines the applicability of the reflected wave method for determining the depth of seepage flow in the dam supporting mass. This can be also achieved by electrical sounding and induced polarization methods since the resistivity and polarizability of air-dry and water-saturated grounds differ considerably. Maps of equal potentials measured on the dam slope reflect the configuration of the contours of water table of the water flow passing through the dam. This makes it possible to obtain data on the direction and intensity of flow as well as on the presence of heterogeneous grounds filling the dam supporting mass. Besides, regime observations conducted according to the SP method allow to forecast the development of suffusion and observe the redeposition of grounds. If the SP anomalies do not increase with time, the suffusion processes can be regarded as fading out. Enhanced amplitude and increasing areas of anomalies show the intensification of these processes. Combined application of some of the above mentioned methods allowed to obtain many practical results on a number of dams in Transcaucasia and Central Asia. The true position of the depression surface determined in the dam of one of the high-mountain water reservoirs, for instance, considerably differed from the designed one. The configuration of the seepage flow surface and its fluctuation caused by the rise and drop of the water level in the reservoir have been studied in detail on another dam situated on a plain. The sites of the most intensive outwash of fine material have also been located and the processes of soil redeposition in the dam supporting mass characterized. The data of the geophysical investigations were used to plan hydroinsulation and repair work.     

软弱结构面水流冲刷形成集中渗漏通道机制研究

软弱结构面塑性程度高、强度低,在地下水长期作用下,很易导致岩体产生变形、形成集中渗漏通道及渗透破坏。软弱结构面的渗透稳定性,一直是水利水电工程的重要工程地质及水文地质问题之一,目前对其渗透破坏机理的认识还存在不少尚未解决的问题。针对已有对基岩软弱结构形成集中渗漏通道研究的不足,本文在软弱结构面内讨论渗透变形问题,主要探讨了软弱结构面受水流冲刷发展的机制,以及土粒起动处于不同位置时的临界流速及相应隙宽。最后介绍了在适当地质等条件下,基岩软弱结构面可形成集中渗漏通道的实例。     

紫坪铺水库地区震源位置和速度结构的联合反演

利用紫坪铺水库7个库区地震台站和10个区域地震台站记录的2004年8月至2008年5月的地震震相观测报告,通过震源位置和速度结构联合反演的方法,采用Simulps14软件对紫坪铺水库地区进行了小震精定位及速度结构反演。通过计算得到了紫坪铺水库地区记录到的几乎所有地震的精定位结果,以及0km、3km、6km和10km几个层面上较好的P波速度和波速比分布情况。精定位结果显示,紫坪铺水库地区的地震活动主要集中在虹口、玉堂镇和水磨3个地区。层析成像和波速比结果则较好地反映了紫坪铺地区受到水库渗水的影响范围及紫坪铺水库对汶川地震的影响。整体上来讲,紫坪铺水库的西南端水库渗水作用最大深度≤8km,汶川主震深度上没有明显的P波低速异常,也没有明显的波速比高值异常,说明水的渗透作用并没有达到汶川主震位置深度,即水对汶川地震的发生没有直接作用。     

水库诱发地震的水二级相变孕震模型

文中讨论了库水渗漏在水库诱发地震中的作用,经过分析研究现有的水库诱发地震资料及相关理论,类比蒸汽锅炉与重力热管的热工原理,提出了水库地震成因的超临界水二级相变孕震模型。模型在水库孕震的各阶段表现为:初始阶段,渗漏水在压力注射和重力作用下形成水塞密封盖层,在超临界温区的地层裂隙中引发二级相变循环对流;孕育阶段,地层原生裂隙在高围压条件下形成应力腐蚀、化学蚀变、温差应力破碎作用,从而原生裂隙更加发育,制造了更大的对流循环通道;临震突变阶段,在热管下部热交换区内的临界水热通量剧增,超临界水发生横向流动,向封盖层外部扩散;发震阶段,在超临界水重力热管的通量和热管上部交换区所形成的压力,超过地层或封盖层的破坏极限时,推动上部地层做活塞运动导致地震     

Results of Seepage Meter and Mini-Piezometer Study, Lake Mead, Nevada

The seepage meter and the mini-piezometer were utilized in an attempt to evaluate ground-water reservoir interactions over a 12-month period at Echo Bay in Lake Mead. In conjunction with these techniques three standard piezometers, refraction seismic data, and water chemistry data were utilized to interpret seepage device results. During a four-month period, from December 1979 to March 1980, an 8 ft (2.5 m) rise in reservoir stage, the reservoir contributed water to Echo Wash bank storage at rates of up to 0.29 gpd/ft² (12 lpd/m²). Ground-water discharge occurred for the remainder of the project, during a stage decline from April 1980 to May 1980, a rise in June 1980, and leveling off and slight decline for the remainder of the year, July 1980 to December 1980. The maximum seepage meter ground-water discharge rate of 3.0 gpd/ft² (122 lpd/m²) was recorded in December 1980. Seepage meter water chemistry data for June were similar to Lake Mead water chemistry and were interpreted to be previously recharged Lake Mead water. September water chemistry data showed two possible components of ground-water discharge, a high SpC calcium sulfate Echo Wash ground water and a lower SpC Lake Mead recharged bank storage water. December ground-water chemistry data showed discharge to be a high SpC calcium sulfate water similar to Echo Wash ground-water quality which was apparently unaffected by Lake Mead inflow. Mini-piezometer data were collected at each seepage meter site. However, these data usually did not provide correlative results with seepage meter data probably because of suspended sediment in the piezometer water column and plugging of the perforated tip. Seepage meters were successfully utilized to characterize reservoir ground-water interaction in Echo Bay.     

Influence of a thin veneer of low‐hydraulic‐conductivity sediment on modelled exchange between river water and groundwater in response to induced infiltration

A thin layer of fine‐grained sediment commonly is deposited at the sediment–water interface of streams and rivers during low‐flow conditions, and may hinder exchange at the sediment–water interface similar to that observed at many riverbank‐filtration (RBF) sites. Results from a numerical groundwater‐flow model indicate that a low‐permeability veneer reduces the contribution of river water to a pumping well in a riparian aquifer to various degrees, depending on simulated hydraulic gradients, hydrogeological properties, and pumping conditions. Seepage of river water is reduced by 5–10% when a 2‐cm thick, low‐permeability veneer is present on the bed surface. Increasing thickness of the low‐permeability layer to 0·1 m has little effect on distribution of seepage or percentage contribution from the river to the pumping well. A three‐orders‐of‐magnitude reduction in hydraulic conductivity of the veneer is required to reduce seepage from the river to the extent typically associated with clogging at RBF sites. This degree of reduction is much larger than field‐measured values that were on the order of a factor of 20–25. Over 90% of seepage occurs within 12 m of the shoreline closest to the pumping well for most simulations. Virtually no seepage occurs through the thalweg near the shoreline opposite the pumping well, although no low‐permeability sediment was simulated for the thalweg. These results are relevant to natural settings that favour formation of a substantial, low‐permeability sediment veneer, as well as central‐pivot irrigation systems, and municipal water supplies where river seepage is induced via pumping wells. Published in 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

新丰江水库地震区内孔隙流体扩散与原地水力扩散率的研究.

本文根据新丰江水库地震的主要成因是水渗透的结果,采用了地震活动的震中分布面积扩散法,利用新丰江水库蓄水以后 MS2.0的地震资料,研究了主震区的水力扩散率.研究结果表明,在新丰江水库地震活动中的前震活动中,原地水力扩散率基本上稳定在6.2m2/S,而主震发生以后震源区的原地水力扩散率增大约50％,即为9.7m2/S.在主震发生后的较长时间里.原地水力扩散率出现了明显的各向异性及受水位涨落等因素的影响,没有一定的规律可循.本文还用室内岩石渗透实验的结果与原地水力扩散率估计值进行了比较,说明室内含破裂面岩样的渗透率同原地渗透率吻合得较好,而完整岩样的渗透率要比原地渗透率低3个数量级.最后将本文地震活动的震中分布面积扩散法的局限性进行了讨论.      

Integration of rock physics and seismic inversion for rock typing and flow unit analysis: A case study

Rock typing and flow unit detection are more challenging in clastic reservoirs with a uniform pore system. An integrated workflow based on well logs, inverted seismic data and rock physics models is proposed and developed to address such challenges. The proposed workflow supplies a plausible reservoir model for further investigation and adds extra information. Then, this workflow has been implemented in order to define different rock types and flow units in an oilfield in the Persian Gulf, where some of these difficulties have been observed. Here, rock physics models have the leading role in our proposed workflow by providing a diagnostic framework in which we successfully differentiate three rock types with variant characteristics on the given wells. Furthermore, permeability and porosity are calculated using the available rock physics models to define several flow units. Then, we extend our investigation to the entire reservoir by means of simultaneous inversion and rock physics models. The outcomes of the study suggest that in sediments with homogeneous pore size distribution, other reservoir properties such as shale content and cementation (which have distinct effects on the elastic domain) can be used to identify rock types and flow units. These reservoir properties have more physical insights for modelling purposes and can be distinguished on seismic cube using proper rock physics models. The results illustrate that the studied reservoir mainly consists of rock type B, which is unconsolidated sands and has the characteristics of a reservoir for subsequent fluid flow unit analysis. In this regard, rock type B has been divided into six fluid units in which the first detected flow unit is considered as the cleanest unit and has the highest reservoir process speed about 4800 to 5000 mD. Here, reservoir quality decreases from flow unit 1 to flow unit 6.     

应用自然电场法检测土坝渗漏隐患的技术

笔者根据在全国各地进行的数十座水利工程的原位测试资料,概括归纳出一套较为系统的应用自然电场法检测土坝渗漏隐患的技术,该技术将集中渗流在自电电位曲线上的反映归结为窄幅异常、宽幅异常、宽幅双峰异常、多峰异常和塔式异常五种基本形态,并可正确地判断正常渗漏和异常渗漏,解释推断出集中渗漏带的宽度、埋深、走向以及渗流的时空动态,为工程除险加固提供可靠的技术资料.