The turbidity of the southern North Sea

Summary A brief survey is given of environmental factors influencing turbidity: tides, vertical stratification, seasonal factors, state of sea. Observations of Secchi disc visibility, averaged per half-degree, square, are compared with surface readings of beam attenuation of the seawater. Considering also results of measurements of daylight penetration in the North Sea, a thumb rule is found for the depth of the level of 1% daylight intensity, viz. three times the Secchi dept. For the southern North Sea it is possible to indicate lines of equal mean depth of that level during the periods December/May and June/November.

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Die Trübung der südlichen Nordsee

Zusammenfassung Es wird ein kurzer Überblick der die Trübung beeinflussenden Umweltsbedingungen gegeben: Tiden, vertikale Schichtung, jahreszeitliche Faktoren, Zustand der Meeresoberfläche. Beobachtungen der Durchsichtigkeit mit Hilfe von Secchi-Scheiben, gemittelt über Halbgradfelder werden verglichen mit Oberflächenmessungen der Lichtabschwächung des Seewassers. Unter Berücksichtigung auch von Meßergebnissen von Tageslichtdurchdringung in der Nordsee ist eine Faustregel für die Tiefe auf der Basis von 1% Tageslichtintensität gefunden worden, nämlich das Dreifache der Secchi-Tiefe. Für die südliche Nordsee ist es möglich, Linien gleicher mittlerer Tiefen auf dieser Basis während der Perioden Dezember/Mai und Juni/November zu bestimmen.

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La turbidité dans la partie Sud de la mer du Nord

Résumé On passe en revue brièvement les facteurs ambiants qui influencent la turbidité: marées, stratification verticale, facteurs saisonniers, état de la mer. Des observations de transparence par disque de Secchi, calculées en moyenne par carré d'un demi-degré, sont comparées avec l'affaiblissement du rayonnement lumineux dans l'eau de mer constaté à la surface. En tenant compte aussi des mesures de la pénétration de la lumière du jour dans la mer du Nord, on établit une loi approximative donnant la profondeur au niveau de laquelle l'intensité de cette lumière est de 1% et qui est trois fois la profondeur de Secchi. Pour la partie Sud de la mer du Nord, il est possible de déterminer des lignes d'égale profondeur moyenne de ce niveau pour les périodes de Décembre à Mai et de Juin à Novembre.

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Nach einem Vortrag gehalten auf der ICES-Tagung 1969 in Dublin.     

A hydrographic time series station in the Wadden Sea (southern North Sea)

In the tidal inlet between the East Frisian islands of Langeoog and Spiekeroog, southern North Sea, a time-series station was set up in autumn 2002 as part of the research programme BioGeoChemistry of Tidal Flats run by the University of Oldenburg. The purpose of the station is to provide continuous data on physical, biological and chemical parameters. In addition to instruments recording basic hydrographic and meteorological parameters, the time-series station is equipped with acoustic Doppler profilers for measuring surface waves and current profiles. Compact optical spectrometers are being used for spectral measurements of seawater transmission and for daylight reflectance. Additional sensors were installed for measuring oxygen, nutrients and methane in the seawater. The data shall help to quantify the flux of dissolved and suspended matter between the backbarrier tidal flat and the open sea and to characterise the material transformation in the tidal flat area by biogeochemical processes over the tidal cycle. Due to its novel design, operation of the station is also possible during winter and under extreme weather conditions (gales, storm surges, and sea ice) when data sampling with conventional platforms such as research vessels, buoys, or smaller poles could not be performed in the past. In this way, time series of data are obtained, which include events that are most relevant to the evolution of this coastal area. The performance of the station and its equipment are presented with data covering 6 years of operation. Time series of air and water temperature as well as seawater salinity demonstrate the multiyear dynamics of these parameters in the East Frisian Wadden Sea. Hydrographic data collected under specific meteorological conditions such as gales and storm surges exemplify the all-weather capabilities of the station and its value for studying hydrographic processes in the Wadden Sea.     

Seabird mortality in the north Irish Sea and firth of clyde early in 1974

Heavy mortality of guillemots in the Irish Sea was recorded in 1969 and was the subject of a detailed enquiry. Organochlorine contamination was thought to be a contributory factor, although this could not be conclusively established. These persistent pollutants remain in the environment and further mortalities might be expected if they were indeed responsible. In January, 1974 there was a further heavy loss of seabirds in the area and, this time, investigators were prepared and the incident was carefully monitored.     

Increase of organochlorines and mercury levels in common guillemots Uria aalge during winter in the southern North Sea

Beached seabirds, mainly common guillemots Uria aalge, were collected on the Belgian coast during winter from 1990 to 1995. Concentrations of total and organic mercury, and of organochlorines (PCBs and pesticides) were determined in muscle, liver and kidney. They were high compared to summer data (up to one order of magnitude), and increased during winter. This increase is not due to changes of total body weight nor polar lipid content, and thus reflects an actual increase of the seabirds' contamination while wintering in the southern North Sea. The observed annual cycle can be understood by assuming differences in prey contamination: higher during winter in the southern North Sea ecosystem than during summer in the Atlantic water ecosystem.     

Distribution and activity of petroleum hydrocarbon degrading bacteria in the North Sea and Baltic Sea

Summary Data were collected in 1988 and 1989 on the distribution and activity of petroleum hydrocarbon degrading bacteria in the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Crude oil degrading bacteria and the number of bacteria which in particular degrade naphthalene were quantified using a modified dilution method (MPN). Crude oil degrading bacteria were present in all of about 100 water samples, with as many as 10³ ml^–1 in some samples. Numbers of naphthalene degrading bacteria were at least tenfold lower. There is obviously a greater connection between this bacteria group and petroleum hydrocarbon (PHC) contamination than between the more nonspecific group of crude oil degrading bacteria and PHC contamination. Data from the North Sea show an extremely high abundance of hydrocarbon degrading bacteria, even in winter, while in the southern Baltic Sea low numbers of bacteria were found and slower crude oil degradation was observed.

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Verteilung und Aktivität von erdölkohlenwasserstoffabbauenden Bakterien in Nord- und Ostsee

Zusammenfassung 1988 und 1989 wurden Daten über Verteilung und Aktivität von erdölkohlenwasserstoffabbauenden Bakterien in Nord- und Ostsee gesammelt. Rohölabbauende Bakterien und die Zahl von Bakterien, die insbesondere Naphthalen abbauen, wurden mit einer modifizierten Lösungsmethode (MPN) bestimmt. Rohölabbauende Bakterien wurden in allen ca. 100 Wasserproben nachgewiesen; in einigen Proben mit nicht weniger als 10³/ml. Die Zahl der naphthalenabbauenden Bakterien war mindestens um den Faktor 10 kleiner. Ein stärkerer Zusammenhang zwischen dieser Bakteriengruppe und der Belastung des Meerwassers durch Erdöl-Kohlenwasserstoffe als zwischen der eher unspezifischen Gruppe der rohölabbauenden Bakterien und dieser Belastung ist wahrscheinlich. Daten aus der Nordsee zeigen, selbst im Winter, eine sehr hohe Zahl von kohlenwasserstoffabbauenden Bakterien, während in der südlichen Ostsee eine niedrigere Anzahl von Bakterien bestimmt und ein langsamerer Rohölabbau beobachtet wurde.

     

Mechanisms controlling the intra-annual mesoscale variability of SST and SPM in the southern North Sea

Thermal and optical remote sensing data were used to investigate the spatial and temporal distribution of sea surface temperature (SST) and of suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the southern North Sea. Monthly SST composites showed pronounced seasonal warming of the southern North Sea and delineated the English coastal and continental coastal waters. The East-Anglia Plume is the dominant feature of the English coastal waters in the winter and autumn SPM composites, and the Rhine region of freshwater influence (ROFI), including the Flemish Banks, is the dominant feature of the continental waters. These mesoscale spatial structures are also influenced by the evolution of fronts, such as the seasonal front separating well-mixed water in the southern Bight, from the seasonally stratified central North Sea waters. A harmonic analysis of the SST and SPM images showed pronounced seasonal variability, as well as spring-neap variations in the level of tidal mixing in the East Anglia Plume, the Rhine ROFI and central North Sea. The harmonic analysis indicates the important role played by the local meteorology and tides in governing the SST and near-surface SPM concentrations in the southern North Sea. In the summer, thermal stratification affects the visibility of SPM to satellite sensors in the waters to the north of the Flamborough and Frisian Fronts. Haline stratification plays an important role in the visibility of SPM in the Rhine ROFI throughout the year. When stratified, both regions typically exhibit low surface SPM values. A numerical model study, together with the harmonic analysis, highlights the importance of tides and waves in controlling the stratification in the southern North Sea and hence the visibility of SPM.     

Reconstructing and understanding the impacts of storms and surges,southern North Sea

Coastal barriers are ubiquitous globally and provide a vital protective role to valuable landforms, habitats and communities located to landward. They are, however, vulnerable to extreme water levels and storm wave impacts. A detailed record of sub‐annual to annual; decadal; and centennial rates of shoreline retreat in frontages characterized by both high (> 3 m) and low (< 1 m) dunes is established for a barrier island on the UK east coast. For four storms (2006–2013) we match still water levels and peak significant wave heights against shoreline change at high levels of spatial densification. The results suggest that, at least in the short‐term, shoreline retreat, of typically 5–8 m, is primarily driven by individual events, separated by varying periods of barrier stasis. Over decadal timescales, significant inter‐decadal changes can be seen in both barrier onshore retreat rates and in barrier extension rates alongshore. Whilst the alongshore variability in barrier migration seen in the short‐term remains at the decadal scale, shoreline change at the centennial stage shows little alongshore variability between a region of barrier retreat (at 1.15 m a^?1) and one of barrier extension. A data‐mining approach, synchronizing all the variables that drive shoreline change (still water level, timing of high spring tides and peak significant wave heights), is an essential requirement for validating models that predict future shoreline responses under changing sea level and storminess. © 2016 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

A model for tides and currents in the English Channel and southern North Sea

The amplitude and phase of 11 tidal constituents for the English Channel and southern North Sea are calculated using a frequency domain, finite element model. The governing equations — the shallow water equations — are modifed such that sea level is calculated using an elliptic equation of the Helmholz type followed by a back-calculation of velocity using the primitive momentum equations. Triangular elements with linear basis functions are used. The modified form of the governing equations provides stable solutions with little numerical noise. In this field-scale test problem, the model was able to produce the details of the structure of 11 tidal constituents including O₁, K₁, M₂, S₂, N₂, K₂, M₄, MS₄, MN₄, M₆, and 2MS₆.     

Field verification of Wave Equation tidal dynamics in the English Channel and southern North Sea

Finite element results obtained with the implicit Wave Equation algorithm are compared with field data in a blind (uncalibrated) verification exercise. The study area comprises the English Channel and the southern North Sea.     

The concealed Caledonide basement of Eastern England and the southern North Sea — A review

Summary Field mapping, analysis of borehole core and studies of geophysical potential field and seismic data can be used to demonstrate the existence of a number of distinct crustal blocks within Eastern Avalonia beneath eastern England and the southern North Sea. At the core of these blocks is the Midlands Microcraton which is flanked by Ordovician volcanic arc complexes exposed in Wales and the Lake District. A possible volcanic arc complex of comparable age in eastern England is concealed by late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic cover. These volcanic arc complexes resulted from subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath Avalonia prior to collision with Baltica and Laurentia in late Ordovician and Silurian time, respectively. The nature of the crust north and east of the concealed Caledonides of Eastern England and south of the lapetus Suture/Tornquist Sea Suture, which forms the basement to the southern North Sea, is unclear. Late Ordovician metamorphic ages from cores penetrating deformed metasedimentary rocks on the Mid-North Sea High suggest these rocks were involved in Avalonia-Baltica collision before final closure of the lapetus Ocean between Laurentia and Avalonia.     

Bed shear stress in the southern North Sea as an important driver for suspended sediment dynamics

This paper addresses the spatial and temporal patterns of drivers for sediment dynamics in coastal areas. The basic assumption is that local processes are dominating. The focus is put on the bed shear stress in the southern part of North Sea giving the basic control for deposition–sedimentation and resuspension–erosion. The wave-induced bed shear stress is formulated using a model based on the concept that the turbulent kinetic energy associated with surface waves is a function of orbital velocity, the latter depending on the wave height and period, as well as on the water depth. Parameters of surface waves are taken from simulations with the wave spectrum model WAM (wave model). Bed shear stress associated with currents is simulated with a 3D primitive equation model, Hamburg Shelf Ocean Model. Significant wave height, bed shear stress due to waves and currents, is subjected to empirical orthogonal functions (EOF) analysis. It has been found that the EOF-1 of significant wave height represents the decrease of significant wave height over the shallows and, due to fetch limitation, along the coastlines. Higher order modes are seesaw-like and, in combination, display a basin-scale rotational pattern centred approximately in the middle of the basin. Similar types of variability is also observed in the second and third EOF of bed shear stress. Surface concentrations of suspended matter derived from MERIS satellite data are analysed and compared against statistical characteristics of bed shear stress. The results show convincingly that the horizontal distribution of sediment can, to a larger extent, be explained by the local shear stress. However, availability of resuspendable sediments on the bottom is quite important in some areas like the Dogger Bank.     

The mixed-bed glacial landform imprint of the North Sea Lobe in the western North Sea

During the last glacial cycle an intriguing feature of the British-Irish Ice Sheet was the North Sea Lobe (NSL); fed from the Firth of Forth and which flowed south and parallel to the English east coast. The controls on the formation and behaviour of the NSL have long been debated, but in the southern North Sea recent work suggests the NSL formed a dynamic, oscillating terrestrial margin operating over a deforming bed. Further north, however, little is known of the behaviour of the NSL or under what conditions it operated. This paper analyses new acoustic, sedimentary and geomorphic data in order to evaluate the glacial landsystem imprint and deglacial history of the NSL offshore from NE England. Subglacial tills (AF2/3) form a discontinuous mosaic interspersed with bedrock outcrops across the seafloor, with the partial excavation and advection of subglacial sediment during both advance and retreat producing mega-scale glacial lineations and grounding zone wedges. The resultant ‘mixed-bed’ glacial landsystem is the product of a dynamic switch from a terrestrial piedmont-lobe margin with a net surplus of sediment to a partially erosive, quasi-stable, marine-terminating, ice stream lobe as the NSL withdrew northwards. Glaciomarine sediments (AF4) drape the underlying subglacial mixed-bed imprint and point to a switch to tidewater conditions between 19.9 and 16.5 ka cal BP as the North Sea became inundated. The dominant controls on NSL recession during this period were changing ice flux through the Firth of Forth ice stream onset zone and water depths at the grounding line; the development of the mixed-bed landsystem being a response to grounding line instability. © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modeling the impact of wind and waves on suspended particulate matter fluxes in the East Frisian Wadden Sea (southern North Sea)

Suspended particulate matter (SPM) fluxes and dynamics are investigated in the East Frisian Wadden Sea using a coupled modeling system based on a hydrodynamical model [the General Estuarine Transport Model (GETM)], a third-generation wave model [Simulating Waves Nearshore (SWAN)], and a SPM module attached to GETM. Sedimentological observations document that, over longer time periods, finer sediment fractions disappear from the Wadden Sea Region. In order to understand this phenomenon, a series of numerical scenarios were formulated to discriminate possible influences such as tidal currents, wind-enhanced currents, and wind-generated surface waves. Starting with a simple tidal forcing, the considered scenarios are designed to increase the realism step by step to include moderate and strong winds and waves and, finally, to encompass the full effects of one of the strongest storm surges affecting the region in the last hundred years (Storm Britta in November 2006). The results presented here indicate that moderate weather conditions with wind speeds up to 7.5 m/s and small waves lead to a net import of SPM into the East Frisian Wadden Sea. Waves play only a negligible role during these conditions. However, for stronger wind conditions with speeds above 13 m/s, wind-generated surface waves have a significant impact on SPM dynamics. Under storm conditions, the numerical results demonstrate that sediments are eroded in front of the barrier islands by enhanced wave action and are transported into the back-barrier basins by the currents. Furthermore, sediment erosion due to waves is significantly enhanced on the tidal flats. Finally, fine sediments are flushed out of the tidal basins due to the combined effect of strong erosion by wind-generated waves and a longer residence time in the water column because of their smaller settling velocities compared to coarser sediments.

Distribution of the surface partial pressure of CO2 in the southern Yellow Sea and its controls

Surface partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂), dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), temperature, salinity and chlorophyll a (Chl a) at grid stations were measured in the southern Yellow Sea (SYS; 32–37°N to 120–125°E) during four cruises conducted in March 2005 (winter), April 2006 (spring), May 2005 (late spring), and July 2001 (summer). Factors influencing pCO₂ spatial and seasonal variations are explored.Surface seawater pCO₂ during winter was oversaturated with respect to the atmosphere in the entire study area (380–606 μatm), primarily due to the complete mixing of the water column in winter which brought CO₂-enriched bottom water to the surface. However, during spring, surface pCO₂ in the central SYS was undersaturated relative to the atmosphere with a low range between 274 and 408 μatm. The net CO₂ sink in the central SYS was mainly due to the consumption of CO₂ by the strong phytoplankton activity and to the weak water stratification, whereas surface pCO₂ in the nearshore area was oversaturated for the atmosphere owing to vertical mixing and terrestrial inputs. During summer, surface pCO₂ varied between 125 and 599 μatm over the entire sampling area. In the Changjiang (Yangtze River) Diluted Water (CDW) area, surface pCO₂ was undersaturated because of the nutrient inputs via the Changjiang, triggering strong phytoplankton activity, whereas surface pCO₂ was oversaturated in other areas. We conclude that the nearshore area behaves as a source of atmospheric CO₂ during the entire investigated periods owing to vertical mixing and terrestrial inputs as well as upwelling, whereas the central region generally shifts from a source of CO₂ in March to a sink in the remaining time of the investigation.