Quantitative evaluation of strategies for erosion control on a railway embankment batter

Strategies for erosion control on a railway embankment batter (side slope) are quantitatively evaluated in this paper. The strategies were centred on control (‘do nothing’ treatment), grass seeding, gypsum application, jute mat (an erosion control blanket) placement and planting hedgerows of Monto vetiver grass. Rainfall and runoff were monitored at 1 min intervals on 10 m wide embankment batter plots during 1998 and 1999. Total bedload and suspended sediment eroded from the plots were also measured but only for a group of storm events within sampling intervals. It has been demonstrated that vetiver grass is not cost‐effective in controlling erosion on railway batters within Central Queensland region. Seeding alone could cause 60% reduction in the erosion rate compared with the control treatment. Applying gypsum to the calcium‐deficient soil before seeding yielded an additional 25% reduction in the erosion rate. This is the result, primarily, of 100% grass cover establishment within seven months of sowing. Therefore, for railway embankment batter erosion control, the emphasis needs to be on rapid establishment of 100% grass cover. For rapid establishment of grass cover, irrigation is necessary during the initial stages of growth as the rainfall is unpredictable and the potential evaporation exceeds rainfall in the study region. The risk of seeds and fertilizers being washed out by short‐duration and high‐intensity rainfall events during the establishment phase may be reduced by the use of erosion control blankets on sections of the batters. Accidental burning of grasses on some plots caused serious erosion problems, resulting in very slow recovery of grass growth. It is therefore recommended that controlled burning of grasses on railway batters should be avoided to protect batters from being exposed to severe erosion. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evolution of salt-marsh cliffs in muddy and sandy systems: A qualitative comparison of British West-Coast estuaries

Salt-marsh cliffs in the muddy Severn Estuary are mostly strong and tall. They are retreating in response to the erosive attack of wave and tidal currents chiefly through toppling failures and rotational slips. In the sandy Solway Firth and Morecambe Bay systems, marsh cliffs are strong only in their upper parts, where a dense root-mat of marsh grasses binds the sediments. Here cantilever and toppling failures are the main response of the cliffs to tidal and wave erosion The differences between the three estuarine systems in the mechanisms of marsh-cliff erosion are partly reflected in the mode of preservation of the cliffs on the restoration of the conditions leading to renewal of marsh growth.     

Contamination of saltmarsh sediments and biota by CCA treated wood walkways

Sediments, marsh grasses, and ribbed mussels were collected under two CCA wood walkways (15 and 3 years old) and 1, 3, and 10 m out, in the high, middle and low marshes. These sediments, and samples from reference sites, were analyzed for Cu, Cr, and As by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Metal concentrations were highly elevated under the walkways and up to 10 m away. Dispersal of contaminants near the old walkway was greatest in the low marsh, less in the middle, and least in the high marsh, corresponding to periods of tidal inundation. Accumulation under the walkway was generally greatest in the low marsh. Contamination was much higher in sediments under the new walkway than the old one, but metals had not dispersed as far. Accumulation patterns in plants were similar, but the contamination did not disperse as far and was not greater under the new vs the old walkway, despite differences in sediment concentrations. In mussels, bioaccumulation was seldom statistically significant, due largely to small sample sizes.     

Using SPIRAL (Single Pollen Isotope Ratio AnaLysis) to estimate C3- and C4-grass abundance in the paleorecord

C₃ and C₄ grasses differ greatly in their responses to environmental controls and influences on biogeochemical processes (e.g. water, carbon, and nutrient cycling). Difficulties in distinguishing between these two functional groups of grasses have hindered paleoecological studies of grass-dominated ecosystems. Stable carbon isotopic analysis of individual grains of grass pollen using a spooling-wire microcombustion device interfaced with an isotope-ratio mass spectrometer holds promise for improving C₃ and C₄ grass reconstructions. This technique, SPIRAL (Single Pollen Isotope Ratio AnaLysis), has only been evaluated using pollen of known C₃ and C₄ grasses. To test the ability of SPIRAL to reproduce the abundance of C₃ and C₄ grasses on the landscape, we measured δ¹³C values of > 1500 individual grains of grass pollen isolated from the surface sediments of ten lakes in areas that span a large gradient of C₃- and C₄-grass abundance, as determined from vegetation surveys. Results indicate a strong positive correlation between the δ¹³C-based estimates of % C₄-grass pollen and the abundance of C₄ grasses on the landscape. The % C₄-grass pollen slightly underestimates the actual abundance of C₄ grasses at sites with high proportions of C₄ grasses, which can be corrected using regression analysis. Comparison of the % C₄-grass pollen with C/N and δ¹³C measurements of bulk organic matter illustrates the distinct advantages of grass-pollen δ¹³C as a proxy for distinguishing C₃ and C₄ shifts within the grass family. Thus SPIRAL promises to advance our understanding of grassland ecology and evolution.     

Thermodynamic consistency of potential evapotranspiration estimates in Florida

This study investigates the validity of fundamental assumptions regarding the partitioning of energy that are implicit in the Penman–Monteith (PM) and Priestly–Taylor (PT) models of potential evapotranspiration (PET). Both these models require energy conservation, but differ in the partitioning of sensible and latent heat fluxes as measured by the Bowen ratio. Application of these models at four research sites in Florida collectively show that these models can be calibrated to provide adequate PET prediction at all sites. The prediction of Bowen ratios using the calibrated PET models showed that the PT model is preferable for lakes and is acceptable for marsh and forest; the crop‐coefficient application of the PM model is preferable for grass and is acceptable for marsh; and the standard PM model is acceptable for marsh. For the marsh and forest covers, the margins of preference between the three models are not very strong. This investigation was limited to climatic conditions in Florida and caution should be exercised in extending these results to other sites and climates. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of crab burrows on pore water flows in salt marshes

Macro-pores such as crab burrows are found commonly distributed in salt marsh sediments. Their disturbance on the soil structure is likely to influence both pore water flows and solute transport in salt marshes; however, the effects of crab burrows are not well understood. Here, a three-dimensional model simulated tidally driven pore water flows subject to the influence of crab burrows in a marsh system. The model, based on Richards’ equation, considered variably saturated flow in the marsh with a two-layer soil configuration, as observed at the Chongming Dongtan wetland (Shanghai, China). The simulation results showed that crab burrows distributed in the upper low-permeability soil layer, acting as preferential flow paths, affected pore water flows in the marsh particularly when the contrast of hydraulic conductivity between the lower high-permeability soil layer and the overlying low-permeability soils was high. The burrows were found to increase the volume of tidally driven water exchange between the marsh soil and the tidal creek. The simulations also showed improvement of soil aeration conditions in the presence of crab burrows. These effects may lead to increased productivity of the marsh ecosystem and enhancement of its material exchange with coastal waters.     

Soil and onsite nutrient conservation potential of aromatic grasses at field scale under a shifting cultivated,degraded catchment in Eastern Ghats,India

Land degradation due to soil erosion is a global problem, especially on cultivated hill slopes. Economically important aromatic grasses can protect degraded hill slopes more effectively than field crops, but little information is available on their performance. This study quantifies runoff, sediment yield,enrichment ratios of soil and nutrients, and sediment-associated organic carbon and nutrients losses under three aromatic grass species: citronella(Cymbopogon nardus), lemon(Cymbopogon flexuosus), and palmarosa(Cymbopogon martini), compared with a traditional field crop, finger millet(Eleusine coracana)grown at three land slopes(4%, 8%, and 12%). It was observed that the degree of slope and type of grass both significantly influenced runoff generation. Runoff and sediment yield(SY) were significantly higher at 12% slope than at 8% and 4% slopes. Relation between rainfall and runoff were significant for all the grass species(p 0.05). Palmarosa, lemon, and citronella grass reduced the SY by 10, 54, and 60%,respectively, over finger millet. SY was also significantly related to rainfall for all the treatments(p 0.05). The threshold runoff values to produce SY were higher for aromatic grasses compared to finger millet. Enrichment of clay, silt, sand, soil organic carbon(SOC), available nitrogen(N), phosphorus(P) and potassium(K) in the sediment were not significantly different between slopes but differed significantly between aromatic grasses and finger millet. Sediment associated nutrient load varied inversely with SY mainly because of the nutrient dissolution effect of high runoff volume. Annual loss of SOC and nutrients varied from 84.7-156.8 kg ha~(-1) y~(-1) for SOC, 4.38-9.18 kg ha~(-1) y~(-1) for available N, 0.35-0.75 kg ha~(-1) y~(-1) for available P, and 2.22-5.22 kg ha~(-1) y~(-1) for available K, with the lowest values for citronella and highest for finger millet. The study found that the aromatic grasses have greater environmental conservation values than finger millet on steep degraded land.     

Evaluating indicators of marsh vulnerability to sea level rise along a historical marsh loss gradient

Sea level rise (SLR) is threatening coastal marshes, leading to large-scale marsh loss in several micro-tidal systems. Early recognition of marsh vulnerability to SLR is critical in these systems to aid managers to take appropriate restoration or mitigation measures. However, it is not clear if current marsh vulnerability indicators correctly assess long-term stability of the marsh system. In this study, two indicators of marsh stress were studied: (i) the skewness of the marsh elevation distribution, and (ii) the abundance of codominant species in mixtures. We combined high-precision elevation measurements (GPS), LiDAR imagery, vegetation surveys and water level measurements to study these indicators in an organogenic micro-tidal system (Blackwater River, Maryland, USA), where large-scale historical conversion from marshes to shallow ponds resulted in a gradient of increasing marsh loss. The two indicators reveal increasingly stressed marshes along the marsh loss gradient, but suggest that the field site with the most marsh loss seems to experience less stress. For the latter site, previous research indicates that wind waves generated on interior marsh ponds contribute to lateral erosion of surrounding marsh edges and hence marsh loss. The eroded marsh sediment might temporarily provide the remaining marshes with the necessary sediment to keep up with relative SLR. However, this is only a short-term alleviation, as lateral marsh edge erosion and sediment export lead to severe marsh loss in the long term. Our findings indicate that marsh elevation skewness and the abundance of codominant species in mixtures can be used to supplement existing marsh stress indicators, but that additional indices such as fetch length and the sediment budget should be included to account for lateral marsh erosion and sediment export and to correctly assess long-term stability of micro-tidal marshes. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Salt marsh surface survives true‐to‐scale simulated storm surges

A full‐scale controlled experiment was conducted on an excavated and re‐assembled coastal wetland surface, typical of floristically diverse northwest European saltmarsh. The experiment was undertaken with true‐to‐scale water depths and waves in a large wave flume, in order to assess the impact of storm surge conditions on marsh surface soils, initially with three different plant species and then when this marsh canopy had been mowed. The data presented suggests a high bio‐geomorphological resilience of salt marshes to vertical sediment removal, with less than 0.6 cm average vertical lowering in response to a sequence of simulated storm surge conditions. Both organic matter content and plant species exerted an important influence on both the variability and degree of soil surface stability, with surfaces covered by a flattened canopy of the salt marsh grass Puccinellia experiencing a lower and less variable elevation loss than those characterized by Elymus or Atriplex that exhibited considerable physical damage through stem folding and breakage. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Resistance of salt marsh substrates to near-instantaneous hydrodynamic forcing

Salt marshes deliver vital ecosystem services by providing habitats, storing pollutants and atmospheric carbon, and reducing flood and erosion risk in the coastal hinterland. Net losses in salt marsh areas, both modelled globally and measured regionally, are therefore of concern. Amongst other controls, the persistence of salt marshes in any one location depends on the ability of their substrates to resist hydrodynamic forcing at the marsh front, along creek margins and on the vegetated surface. Where relative sea level is rising, marsh elevation must keep pace with sea-level rise and landward expansion may be required to compensate for areal loss at exposed margins. This paper reviews current understanding of marsh substrate resistance to the near-instantaneous (seconds to hours) forcing induced by hydrodynamic processes. It outlines how variability in substrate properties may affect marsh substrate stability, explores current understanding of the interactions between substrate properties and erosion processes, and how the cumulative impact of these interactions may affect marsh stability over annual to decadal timescales. Whilst important advances have been made in understanding how specific soil properties affect near-instantaneous marsh substrate stability, less is known about how these properties interact and alter bulk substrate resistance to hydrodynamic forcing. Future research requires a more systematic approach to quantifying biological and sedimentological marsh substrate properties. These properties must then be linked to specific observable erosion processes, particularly at the marsh front and along creek banks. A better understanding of the intrinsic dynamics and processes acting on, and within, salt marsh substrates will facilitate improved prediction of marsh evolution under future hydrodynamic forcing scenarios. Notwithstanding the additional complications that arise from morphodynamic feedbacks, this would allow us to more accurately model the future potential protection from flooding and erosion afforded by marshes, while also increasing the effectiveness of salt marsh restoration and recreation schemes. © 2020 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd     

Climate,vegetation, and soil controls on hydraulic redistribution in shallow tree roots

Hydraulic redistribution defined as the translocation of soil moisture by plant root systems in response to water potential gradients is a phenomenon widely documented in different climate, vegetation, and soil conditions. Past research has largely focused on hydraulic redistribution in deep tree roots with access to groundwater and/or winter rainfall, while the case of relatively shallow (i.e., ≈1–2 m deep) tree roots has remained poorly investigated. In fact, it is not clear how hydraulic redistribution in shallow root zones is affected by climate, vegetation, and soil properties. In this study, we developed a model to investigate the climate, vegetation, and soil controls on the net direction and magnitude of hydraulic redistribution in shallow tree root systems at the growing season to yearly timescale. We used the model to evaluate the effect of hydraulic redistribution on the water stress of trees and grasses. We found that hydraulic lift increases with decreasing rainfall frequency, depth of the rooting zone, root density in the deep soil and tree leaf area index; at the same time for a given rainfall frequency, hydraulic lift increases with increasing average rainstorm depth and soil hydraulic conductivity. We propose that water drainage into deeper soil layers can lead to the emergence of vertical water potential gradients sufficient to explain the occurrence of hydraulic lift in shallow tree roots without invoking the presence of a shallow water table or winter precipitation. We also found that hydraulic descent reduces the water stress of trees and hydraulic lift reduces the water stress of grass with important implications on tree–grass interactions.     

Vegetation cutting as a clean-up method for salt and brackish marshes impacted by oil spills: a review and case history of the effects on plant recovery

Manual cutting of marsh vegetation contaminated by oil spills is often debated as a clean-up technique. Cutting oiled marsh vegetation may be proposed to prevent the oiling of sensitive wildlife associated with marshes. Less frequently, oiled marshes may be cut to aid vegetation recovery. This paper reviews several studies of oiled marsh cutting, and presents a case history of the Grand Eagle oil spill, where marsh cutting was used as a clean-up technique. The paper focuses on the effects of cutting on oiled vegetation survival and structural recovery. We conclude that cutting is often detrimental. Marshes should not be cut when impacted by light oils, where high flushing rates are present, or where re-oiling would be likely. Cutting should only be considered for areas where oil may persist, significant impacts to wildlife are likely, and less destructive clean-up techniques have proven insufficient. Seasonality should be considered prior to cutting, since vegetation impacts may be less likely during fall and winter. Concurrent stresses, such as unusual or extreme salinity or hydrological conditions, should also be considered prior to cutting, to avoid stressing oiled vegetation beyond recovery. Finally, if vegetation cutting is used in marsh environments, substrate disturbance should be avoided.     

Sulphate reduction as a geomorphological agent in tidal marshes (‘Great Marshes’ at Barnstable,Cape Cod,USA)

Many tidal marsh surfaces feature water-filled depressions, known as salt pans (shallow) or ponds (deeper). In the Great Marshes at Barnstable, Cape Cod, pond formation is an active process. We hypothesize that degradation of organic matter by sulphate-reducing bacteria in these peat-rich marsh deposits is the primary cause of pan and pond formation. Sulphate reduction below an actively developing pond is probably enhanced by higher temperature and salinity of the pond water. Computer simulation suggests that ponds with similar characteristics to those in the Barnstable marshes may develop by sulphate reduction. Necessary conditions are sufficiently deep percolation and diffusion of sulphate into the underlying marsh deposits, and a high decomposition rate stimulated by high water temperatures in the ponds. In areas with a high density of ponds, drainage of the ponds by headward erosion of tidal creeks may cause rapid disintegration of the marsh surface. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rapid tidal marsh development in anthropogenic backwaters

Tidal marsh restoration and creation is growing in popularity due to the many and diverse sets of services these important ecosystems provide. However, it is unclear what conditions within constructed settings will lead to the successful establishment of tidal marsh. Here we provide documentation for widespread and rapid development of tidal freshwater wetlands for a major urban estuary as an unintended result of early industrial development. Anthropogenic backwater areas established behind railroad berms, jetties, and dredge spoil islands resulted in the rapid accumulation of clastic material and the subsequent initiation of emergent marshes. In one case, historical aerial photos document this transition occurring in less than 18 years, offering a timeframe for marsh development. Accretion rates for anthropogenic tidal marshes and mudflats average 0.8–1.1 and 0.6–0.7 cm year⁻¹, respectively, equivalent to two to three times the rate of relative sea level rise as well as the observed accretion rate at a 6000+ year-old reference marsh in the study area. Paired historical and geospatial analysis revealed that more than half of all the tidal wetlands on the Hudson River were likely triggered by anthropogenic development since the onset of the industrial era, including two-thirds of the emergent cattail marsh. These inadvertently constructed tidal wetlands currently trap roughly 6% of the Hudson River's sediment load. Results indicate that when sediment is readily available, freshwater tidal wetlands can develop relatively rapidly in sheltered settings. The study sites serve as useful examples to help guide future tidal marsh creation and restoration efforts.     

Historical development of the saltmarsh at Wells,Maine

Comparisons of maps and aerial photographs dating from the late 1700s to the present document the recent development of an 8 km² saltmarsh that is situated behind a barrier spit in southern Maine. Tidal channels that were relatively narrow in 1794 became wider by 1872. The reduction of marsh bordering tidal channels is interpreted as evidence that marsh accretion could not keep pace with rising sea-level. This suggests that the rate of sea-level rise had increased, although a change in discharge or sediment load caused by extensive settlement and land clearance may also have been involved. Meander patterns of the tidal streams changed considerably throughout the time period covered by the maps, demonstrating that the streams of this marsh are more dynamic than some others that have been widely reported in the literature. These differences in stream dynamics are probably related to the differences in sedimentological structure of the marshes. Between 1872 and 1956 the barrier spit eroded on its inside (shoreward) edge, probably in response to the construction of riprapping and houses along the spit, and the subsequent reduction of overwash and aeolian transport of sediment. Modification of the tidal inlet and adjacent marsh during the 1960s, including jetty construction, dredging, and filling of portions of the marsh surface, affected the marsh only locally. One tidal stream has been migrating rapidly apparently in response to compaction of peat by dredge spoils and consequent local disruption of the marsh hydrology. Except for this migration, erosion of the marsh edge occurred immediately after the inlet modifications; planimetric changes in the marsh and its streams have been minor since then.     

Contrasting biogeomorphic processes affecting salt‐marsh development of the Mokbaai,Texel, The Netherlands

The growth and decline of salt marshes may be the result of various interacting biogeomorphic processes and external factors. We present a case study of the Mokbaai on the Wadden island of Texel, where we assess the relative importance and the interaction between the biogeomorphic processes and various disturbances. We analysed changes in vegetation composition in the salt marsh and sedimentation–erosion patterns of the adjoining intertidal flat over a 30‐year period. Vegetation underwent regression in the lower parts of the marsh, i.e. the low marsh zone changed into pioneer zone. Comparing elevation measurements from 2013 and 1983 showed that the adjoining intertidal flats eroded 15–25 cm. Maintenance dredging of a nearby harbour might negatively impact the sediment balance indicating that the regression of the lower parts of the salt marsh is caused by a lack of sediment. Simultaneously, a change in the local hydrology led to vegetation succession into high and brackish salt marsh, increased organic sediment production and consequently cliff formation. The results from this case study show that, even in a relatively small salt marsh, changes in external factors may set in motion a series of biogeomorphic processes and feedbacks, leading to locally contrasting trends in spatiotemporal development. © 2016 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

Erosion rather than plant dieback as the mechanism of marsh loss in an estuarine marsh

Coastal marsh loss in Louisiana is attributed to plane dieback caused by processes that stress vegetation, and a common landscape pattern is broken marsh that expands at the expense of surrounding unbroken marsh. We tested the hypothesis that vegetation is more stressed in broken marsh than in adjacent unbroken marsh, as indicated by vegetation aboveground biomass, species diversity and soil Eh, on transects that extended from broken marsh to unbroken marsh at Marsh Island, Louisiana. Soil Eh, vegetation above-ground biomass and species diversity did not differ between broken marsh and unbroken marsh, and above-ground biomass was similar to that reported from other marshes. Thus, we rejected the hypothesis that marsh loss is related to vegetation stress. Two factors were related to vegetation vigour: soil drainage and soil bulk density. Surprisingly, significant soil drainage occurred in broken marsh but not in unbroken marsh. Above-ground biomass of the dominant plant, Spartina patens (Aiton) Muhl., was lowest where soil bulk density was less than 0-08 gcm⁻³, which illustrated the importance of mineral matter accumulation in submerging coastal marshes. The mechanism of marsh loss appeared to be erosion below the living root zone, as indicated by the vertical and often undercut marsh-water interface, and by the separation of sod clasts. This is different from more rapid marsh loss associated with plant stress which we observed in other Louisiana marshes only 135 km away, indicating that marsh loss mechanisms can vary spatially even within a relatively small region.     

Contamination of Caribbean coastal waters by the antifouling herbicide Irgarol 1051

Irgarol 1051 is a s-triazine herbicide used in popular slime-resistant antifouling paints. It has been shown to be acutely toxic to corals, mangroves and sea grasses, inhibiting photosynthesis at low concentrations (>50 ng l(-1)). We present the first data describing the occurrence of Irgarol 1051 in coastal waters of the Northeastern Caribbean (Puerto Rico (PR) and the US Virgin Islands (USVI)). Low level contamination of coastal waters by Irgarol 1051 is reported, the herbicide being present in 85% of the 31 sites sampled. It was not detected in water from two oceanic reference sites. In general, Irgarol 1051was present at concentrations below 100 ng l(-1), although far higher concentrations were reported at three locations within Benner Bay, USVI (223-1,300 ng l(-1)). The known toxicity of Irgarol 1051 to corals and sea grasses and our findings of significant contamination of the Northeastern Caribbean marine environment by this herbicide underscore the importance of understanding, more fully, local and regional exposure of reef and sea grass habitats to Irgarol 1051 and, where necessary, implementing actions to ensure adequate protection of these important ecosystems.     

The mobility, partitioning and degradation of atrazine and simazine in the salt marsh environment

The transfer of the s-triazine herbicides onto a salt marsh and their subsequent behaviour and fate has been investigated in a series of laboratory-based experiments. The results indicate that atrazine and simazine enter the marsh system and undergo negligible adsorption onto suspended solids. Herbicide accumulation within the sediment compartment was thought to be due to other mechanisms such as partitioning into the surface microlayer, or association with sediment flocs. s-Triazine mobility within the sediment was dictated by compound and sediment type, reflecting greater mobility in the mud flat than the vegetated marsh sediment. The majority of the herbicides were, however, retained in the uppermost layers of the sediment profile indicating that salt marsh sediments act as a sink for these compounds. Although degradation rates in the sediment were relatively rapid, detectable levels of the parent compounds were still evident after 71 days, which implies that these compounds may persist in salt marsh sediments. The absence of degradation in the aqueous phase implies that adsorption to particulate matter is a prerequisite for the degradation of the s-triazine herbicides.     

鄱阳湖候鸟越冬地生态环境及三峡工程对其影响的预测

鄱阳湖是我国最大的淡水湖泊.每年秋冬枯水期,在赣江和修水入湖三角洲前缘,由草滩-泥滩-积水洼地组成的湿地生态环境为越冬候鸟提供了良好的栖息条件。调查表明,高程12-13m低地最适宜候鸟越冬生存。三峡建坝后,10月份水库蓄水长江下泄流量减少,引起鄱阳湖的提前退水和滩地提前显露,虽使动物性饵料略有减少,但对食草候鸟影响不大.人类提前对草滩资源利用和利用下限的扩大,使候鸟隐蔽条件变差.