中国夏季极端酷暑的气候统计和趋势分析

Based on the daily maximum air temperature data from 300 stations in China from 1958 to 2008, the climatological distribution of the number of days with high temperature extremes （HTEs, maximum temperatures higher than 35℃） are studied with a focus on the long-term trends. Although the number of HTE days display well-defined sandwich spatial structures with significant decreasing trends in central China and increasing trends in northern China and southern China, the authors show that the decrease of HTE days in central China occurs mainly in the early period before the 1980s, and a significant increase of HTE days dominates most of the stations after the 1980s. The authors also reveal that there is a jump-like acceleration in the number of HTE days at most stations across China since the mid 1990s, especially in South China, East China, North China, and northwest China.     

Changing Trends of Daily Temperature Extremes with Different Intensities in China

By comparing two sets of quality-controlled daily temperature observation data with and without the inhomogeneity test and adjustment from 654 stations in China during 1956-2004 and 1956-2010, impacts of inhomogeneity on changing trends of four percentile temperature extreme indices, including occurrences of cold days, cold nights, warm days, and warm nights with varying intensities, were discussed. It is found that the inhomogeneity affected the long-term trends averaged over extensive regions limitedly. In order to minimize the inhomogeneity impact, the 83 stations identified with obvious inhomogeneity impacts were removed, and an updated analysis of changing trends of the four temperature extreme indices with varying intensities during 1956-2010 was conducted. The results show that annual occurrences of both cold nights and cold days decreased greatly while those of warm nights and warm days increased significantly during the recent 20 years. The more extreme the event is, the greater the magnitude of changing trends for the temperature extreme index is. An obvious increasing trend was observed in annual occurrences of cold days and cold nights in the recent four years. The magnitude of changing trends of warm extreme indices was greater than that of cold extreme indices, and it was greater in northern China than in southern China. Trends for summer occurrence of cold days were not significant. Decreasing trends of occurrences of both cold nights and cold days were the greatest in December, January, and February (DJF) but the least in June, July, and August (JJA), while increasing trends of warm nights were the greatest in JJA. Cold nights significantly decreased from 1956 to 1990, and then the decreasing trend considerably weakened. The decreasing trend also showed an obvious slowdown in recent years for occurrence of cold days. However, increasing trends of warm nights and warm days both have been accelerated continuously since the recent decades. Further analysis presents that the evolution of the trends for occurrences of the four temperature extreme indices was dominated by the changes in northern China.     

Trends of Temperature Extremes in Summer and Winter during 1971–2013 in China

The diurnal temperature range(DTR) has decreased dramatically in recent decades, but it is not yet obvious whether the extreme values of DTR have also reduced. Based on the daily maximum and minimum temperature data of 653 stations in China, a set of monthly indices of warm extremes, cold extremes, and DTR extremes in summer(June, July, August) and winter(December, January, February) were studied for spatial and temporal features during the period 1971–2013. Results show that the incidence of warm extremes has been increasing in most parts of China, while the opposite trend was found in the cold extremes for summer and winter months. Both increasing and decreasing trends of monthly DTR extremes were identified in China for both seasons. For high DTR extremes, decreasing trends were identified in northern China for both seasons, but increasing trends were found only in southern China in summer, while in winter, they were found in central China. Monthly low DTR extreme indices demonstrated consistent positive trends in summer and winter, while significant increases(P 0.05) were identified for only a few stations.     

Trends in Temperature Extremes in Association with Weather-Intraseasonal Fluctuations in Eastern China

Trends in the frequencies of four temperature extremes (the occurrence of warm days, cold days, warm nights and cold nights) with respect to a modulated annual cycle (MAC), and those associated exclusively with weather-intraseasonal fluctuations (WIF) in eastern China were investigated based on an updated homogenized daily maximum and minimum temperature dataset for 1960–2008. The Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition (EEMD) method was used to isolate the WIF, MAC, and longer-term components from the temperature series. The annual, winter and summer occurrences of warm (cold) nights were found to have increased (decreased) significantly almost everywhere, while those of warm (cold) days have increased (decreased) in northern China (north of 40°N). However, the four temperature extremes associated exclusively with WIF for winter have decreased almost everywhere, while those for summer have decreased in the north but increased in the south. These characteristics agree with changes in the amplitude of WIF. In particular, winter WIF of maximum temperature tended to weaken almost everywhere, especially in eastern coastal areas (by 10%–20%); summer WIF tended to intensify in southern China by 10%–20%. It is notable that in northern China, the occurrence of warm days has increased, even where that associated with WIF has decreased significantly. This suggests that the recent increasing frequency of warm extremes is due to a considerable rise in the mean temperature level, which surpasses the effect of the weakening weather fluctuations in northern China.     

Quantile Trends in Temperature Extremes in China

A number of recent studies have examined trends in extreme temperature indices using a linear regression model based on ordinary least-squares. In this study, quantile regression was, for the first time, applied to examine the trends not only in the mean but also in all parts of the distribution of several extreme temperature indices in China for the period 1960-2008. For China as a whole, the slopes in almost all the quantiles of the distribution showed a notable increase in the numbers of warm days and warm nights, and a significant decrease in the number of cool nights. These changes became much fas- ter as the quantile increased. However, although the number of cool days exhibited a significant decrease in the mean trend estimated by classical linear regression, there was no obvious trend in the upper and lower quantiles. This finding suggests that examining the trends in different parts of the distribution of the time-series is of great importance. The spatial distribution of the trend in the 90th quantile indicated that there was a pronounced increase in the numbers of warm days and warm nights, and a decrease in the number of cool nights for most of China, but especially in the northern and western parts of China, while there was no significant change for the number of cool days at almost all the stations.     

近40年我国极端温度变化趋势和季节特征

利用1961—2000年我国194个测站逐日最高温度和最低温度器测资料,结合具有实际意义的季节极端温度指数,分析了我国近40年极端温度事件的年变化趋势和季节特征。对年极端气候指数的研究表明：绝对阈值定义的冷暖指数由于无法考虑南北气候差异,其结果不理想。百分比阈值所得的冷暖指数中,冷日指数和暖日指数具有不对称性,冷夜指数和暖夜指数具有较强的对称性。对季节极端温度指数研究表明：冬季极端冷指数变化趋势最为明显,夏季极端暖指数的变化趋势次之,春、秋两季极端冷指数的变化趋势不明显;年和季节尺度的极端冷暖指数均反映出增暖趋势。     

Changes in Daily Climate Extremes of Observed Temperature and Precipitation in China

Daily precipitation for 1960–2011 and maximum/minimum temperature extremes for 1960–2008 recorded at 549 stations in China are utilized to investigate climate extreme variations.A set of indices is derived and analyzed with a main focus on the trends and variabilities of daily extreme occurrences.Results show significant increases in daily extreme warm temperatures and decreases in daily extreme cold temperatures,defined as the number of days in which daily maximum temperature(Tmax)and daily minimum temperature(Tmin)are greater than the 90th percentile and less than the10th percentile,respectively.Generally,the trend magnitudes are larger in indices derived from Tmin than those from Tmax.Trends of percentile-based precipitation indices show distinct spatial patterns with increases in heavy precipitation events,defined as the top 95th percentile of daily precipitation,in western and northeastern China and in the low reaches of the Yangtze River basin region,and slight decreases in other areas.Light precipitation,defined as the tail of the5th percentile of daily precipitation,however,decreases in most areas.The annual maximum consecutive dry days(CDD)show an increasing trend in southern China and the middle-low reach of the Yellow River basin,while the annual maximum consecutive wet days(CWD)displays a downtrend over most regions except western China.These indices vary significantly with regions and seasons.Overall,occurrences of extreme events in China are more frequent,particularly the night time extreme temperature,and landmasses in China become warmer and wetter.     

江南地区夏季气温异常与全球海温异常的相关关系

利用1951年1月-1999年12月中国160站的气温资料和1950年1月-1998年12月海温资料，寻求影响江南地区夏季气温异常的海温关键区和关键时段。通过对江南地区近50a夏季的标准化气温距平与全球前一年1—12月各月的海温距平求相关，发现热带大西洋中部在前一年10月开始到当年2月存在一个相关系数较高的海区，影响着江南夏季的气温异常。     

Variations in Regional Mean Daily Precipitation Extremes and Related Circulation Anomalies over Central China During Boreal Summer

The variations of regional mean daily precipitation extreme （RMDPE） events in central China and associated circulation anomalies during June, July, and August （JJA） of 1961-2010 are investigated by using daily in-situ precipitation observations and the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data. The precipitation data were collected at 239 state-level stations distributed throughout the provinces of Henan, Hubei, and Hunan. During 1961-2010, the 99th percentile threshold for RMDPE is 23.585 mm day-1. The number of RMDPE events varies on both interannual and interdecadal timescales, and increases significantly after the mid 1980s. The RMDPE events happen most frequently between late June and mid July, and are generally associated with anomalous baroclinic tropospheric circulations. The supply of moisture to the southern part of central China comes in a stepping way from the outer-region of an abnormal anticyclone over the Bay of Bengal and the South China Sea. Fluxes of wave activity generated over the northeastern Tibetan Plateau converge over central China, which favors the genesis and maintenance of wave disturbances over the region. RMDPE events typically occur in tandem with a strong heating gradient formed by net heating in central China and the large-scale net cooling in the surrounding area. The occurrence of RMDPE events over central China is tied to anomalous local cyclonic circulations, topographic forcing over the northeast Tibetan Plateau, and anomalous gradients of diabatic heating between central China and the surrounding areas.     

非对称性增温对农业生态系统影响研究进展

该文概述了北半球和我国气候变暖中增温的非对称性特征:北半球气候变暖存在明显的季节差异和昼夜不同步性, 大部分地区冬、春季升温高于夏、秋季, 日最低气温升幅是日最高气温升幅的2~3倍; 近50年我国近地表气温升高主要是最低气温明显上升的结果, 日最低气温升幅是日最气高温升幅的2~3倍, 与北半球基本一致; 升温最显著的季节为冬季和春季。在此基础上概述了非对称性增温对农业生态系统的影响, 论述了非对称性增温对农作物物候和农作物产量的影响, 得出最低气温升高促使整个生长季延长, 促使早春作物物候期提前, 但最低气温和最高气温对不同作物的物候以及同一作物的不同发育阶段影响不同。现有研究多采用模型或统计的方法研究气候变暖对作物生长的影响, 认为温度升高对作物有“强迫成熟”效应; 而现有的最低气温升高和最高气温升高对作物生长影响的研究结果并不一致。非对称性增温对农作物影响的实验研究极少, 且缺乏对模型模拟结果的实验验证。     

华南暖季极端降水与气温的对应关系

利用华南地区1966—2005年5—10月台站小时降水和日降水以及气温观测资料,分析了极端降水与气温的对应关系。结果表明,气温低于25℃时,日极端降水强度与小时极端降水强度均随气温升高而升高,且越极端的降水出现向两倍Clausius-Clapeyron (CC)变率转换的气温越低;气温高于25℃时,日极端降水强度和小时极端降水强度出现不同程度的下降,其中前者下降更为显著。考察降水持续时长发现,气温高于25℃时,华南地区小时极端降水随气温的下降主要由短持续性降水所贡献;气温高于28℃时几乎无长持续性降水发生。     

Sea Surface Temperature Extremes of Different Intensity in the China Seas During the Global Warming Acceleration and Hiatus Periods

Based on the daily OISST V2 with 0.25o horizontal resolutions, we study the variations of sea surface temperature (SST) extremes in the China Seas for different segments of the period 1982-2013. The two segments include the warming acceleration period from 1982 to 1997 and hiatus period from 1998 to 2013 when the global surface mean temperature (GSMT) was not significantly warming as expected during the past decades, or even cooling in some areas. First, we construct the regional average time series over the entire China Seas (15o–45oN, 105o–130oE) for these SST extremes. During the hiatus period, the regionally averaged 10th, 1th and 0.1th percentile of SSTs in each year decreased significantly by 0.40°C, 0.56°C and 0.58°C per decade, respectively. The regionally averaged 90th, 99th and 99.9th percentile of SSTs in each year decreased slightly or insignificantly. Our work confirmed that the regional hiatus was primarily reflected by wintertime cold extremes. Spatially, the trends of cold extremes in different intensity were non-uniformly distributed. Cold extremes in the near-shore areas are much more sensitivity to the global warming hiatus. Hot extremes trends exhibited non-significant tendency in the China Seas during the hiatus period. In word, the variations of the SST extremes in the two periods were non-uniform spatially and asymmetric seasonally. It is unexpected that the hot and cold extremes of each year in 1998–2013 were still higher than those extremes in 1982–1997. It is obvious that relative to the warming acceleration period, hot extremes are far more likely to occur in the recent hiatus as a result of a 0.3°C warmer shift in the mean temperature distribution. Moreover, hot extremes in the China Seas will be sustained or amplified with the end of warming hiatus and the continuous anthropogenic warming.     

我国夏季降水与全球气温场的关系

用蒙特卡罗的相关方法研究我国夏季大尺度降水与全球气温场关系，发现我国夏季大尺度降水与全球气温场有密切相关，以同期相关为最密切；除与热带西太平洋、东太平洋等海域有密切相关外，还与欧洲东部、北美洲东北部以及东亚等内陆地区的不同季节气温场有关系。研究还表明，印度洋地区春季气温和北美洲北部及北太平洋西南部夏季气温偏高时，长江中下游夏季易涝。且它们与长江中下游夏季降水的相关均有阶段性，相关密切程度随时间有所增强。     

8个CMIP5模式对中国极端气温的模拟和预估

利用8个耦合模式比较计划第五阶段（CMIP5）模式结果,采用加权平均方法进行多模式集合,并与NCEP再分析资料进行对比分析,评估了CMIP5模式对中国极端气温的模拟效果,在此基础上,对未来极端气温进行预估。CMIP5模式对中国8个极端气温指数和20年一遇最高（低）气温有模拟能力,所有极端气温指数模拟和观测结果的时间相关均达到0.10显著性水平,20年一遇最高、最低气温模拟和观测结果空间相关系数均超过0.98。在中等排放RCP4.5情景下,未来中国极暖（冷）日数增多（减少）,到21世纪中期热浪指数增加2.6倍,到21世纪末期寒潮指数减少71%,20年一遇最高（低）气温在中国地区均呈现升高趋势,局部升温幅度达到4℃。     

我国南方盛夏气温主模态特征及其与海温异常的联系

利用NCEP/NCAR大气环流资料、HadISST海温数据以及中国160站气温数据等,通过EOF分解、线性相关等统计方法,分析了我国南方盛夏气温异常的主导模态及其所对应的关键环流系统和可能的海洋外强迫信号。结果表明:我国南方盛夏气温偏高有两种不同的分布模态,一是以江淮地区为中心的江淮型高温,二是以江南和华南为中心的江南型高温,导致这两种高温型发生的环流影响系统和海温外强迫因子均有显著差异。影响江淮型高温的关键环流系统是高低空正压结构的高度场正距平和偏弱的东亚副热带西风急流。而影响这两个关键环流系统的海洋外强迫因子包括热带印度洋至东太平洋的"-+-"海温异常分布型及北大西洋中纬度的暖海温异常。2016年盛夏江淮型高温的大气环流和海温异常均表现出典型江淮型高温年的特征,更好的证明了统计分析的结论。而江南型高温的关键环流系统主要是加强西伸的西太平洋副热带高压。其海洋外强迫因子包括前冬赤道中东太平洋的暖海温异常和春季-盛夏热带印度洋全区一致型暖海温异常,其中热带印度洋海温的影响更为持续和显著。     

关键海区海温异常的变化与中国区域降水和气温的关系

利用 １９５１年到 １９９８年的月平均海温资料及同时期中国 １６０个测站的降水和气温的月平均资料,选用海温异常的变化趋势一变温,讨论了关键海区海温异常的变化与我国降水和气温的关系,旨在探讨变温因子与我国降水和气温的关系与海温距平与降水和气温的关系有什么不同,用变温因子能否降低降水预报的不确定性。结果表明：降水异常对海温异常两种变化趋势的响应不完全相同,说明分别讨论同一种海温异常态的两种变化趋势对降水的影响比单独讨论海温距平对降水的影响更有效一些,有助于降低预报的不确定性;除西太平洋海区外,气温异常对各海区海温异常两种变化趋势的响应较一致。降水异常对变温的响应与对海温异常的响应,有一致之处,也有不同之处。     

中国极端气候变化观测研究回顾与展望

评述、总结了近年有关中国极端气候变化的观测研究成果,讨论了尚未解决的科学问题和今后应重点加强的工作方向。已有研究表明,1951年以来中国大陆地区极端气候事件频率和强度发生了一定变化,但不同类型和不同区域极端气候变化存在明显差异。从全国范围看,与异常偏冷相关的极端事件如寒潮、冷夜和冷昼天数、霜冻日数等,显著减少减弱,偏冷的气候极值减轻;与异常偏暖相关的暖夜、暖昼日数明显增多,暖夜日数增多尤其明显,但高温事件频数和偏热的气候极值未见显著长期趋势;全国平均暴雨和极端强降水事件频率和强度有所增长,特别是长江中下游和东南地区、西部特别是西北地区有较明显增长,而华北、东北中南部和西南部分地区减少减弱;多数地区小雨频数明显下降,偏轻和偏强降水的强度似有增加;全国遭受气象干旱的范围呈较明显增加趋势,其中华北和东北地区增加更为显著;登陆和影响我国的热带气旋、台风频数有所下降,其造成的降水总量有较明显减少;北方地区的沙尘暴事件从总体上看有显著减少减弱趋势;我国东部部分地区夏季雷暴发生频率也存在较明显下降趋势。现有工作表明,在涉及极端气候变化研究的资料处理和分析方法方面还有改进余地。观测资料的非均一性,以及观测环境改变和城市化对地面气候要素变化趋势的影响偏差,需要进行深入评价和客观订正。此外,目前对于区域极端气候变化的综合分析还较薄弱,在极端气候变化机理的研究方面有待加强。     

Changes in Seasonal Cycle and Extremes in China during the Period 1960–2008

Recent trends in seasonal cycles in China are analyzed, based on a homogenized dataset of daily temperatures at 541 stations during the period 1960–2008. Several indices are defined for describing the key features of a seasonal cycle, including local winter/summer (LW/LS) periods and local spring/autumn phase (LSP/LAP). The Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition method is applied to determine the indices for each year. The LW period was found to have shortened by 2–6 d (10 yr)-1, mainly due to an earlier end to winter conditions, with the LW mean temperature having increased by 0.2°C–0.4°C (10 yr)?1, over almost all of China. Records of the most severe climate extremes changed less than more typical winter conditions did. The LS period was found to have lengthened by 2–4 d (10 yr)?1, due to progressively earlier onsets and delayed end dates of the locally defined hot period. The LS mean temperature increased by 0.1°C–0.2°C (10 yr)-1 in most of China, except for a region in southern China centered on the mid-lower reaches of the Yangtze River. In contrast to the winter cases, the warming trend in summer was more prominent in the most extreme records than in those of more typical summer conditions. The LSP was found to have advanced significantly by about 2 d (10 yr)-1 in most of China. Changes in the autumn phase were less prominent. Relatively rapid changes happened in the 1980s for most of the regional mean indices dealing with winter and in the 1990s for those dealing with summer.     

An Abrupt Increase in the Summer High Temperature Extreme Days across China in the mid-1990s

Based on the daily maximum surface air temperature records from an updated homogenized temperature dataset for 549 Chinese stations during 1960-2008,we reveal that there is an abrupt increase in the number of days with high temperature extremes (HTEs,an HTE day is defined when the maximum temperature exceeds the 95th percentile of the daily maximum temperature distributions) across China in the mid-1990s.Before this regime shift,the average number of HTE days is about 2.9 d yr 1 during the period from the 1970s to the early 1990s,while it rocketed to about 7.2 d yr 1 after the mid-1990s.We show that the significant HTE day increase occurs uniformly across the whole of China after the regime shift.The observational evidence raises the possibility that this change in HTE days is associated with global-scale warming as well as circulation adjustment.Possible causes for the abrupt change in the HTE days are discussed,and the circulation adjustment is suggested to play a crucial role in the increase in HTE days in this region.