A World Model of Chemical Denudation in Karst Terrains

In this paper, I develop global karst chemical denudation models using chemical equilibrium equations. Theoretical karst chemical denudation rates are calculated as soil carbon dioxide concentration varies from 10^?3.5 atm to 10^?1.0 atm, temperature varies from 0°C to 30°C, and annual runoff varies from 500 mm to 3,000 mm. Both open and closed karst solution systems are examined. The Drake (1980) and the Brook‐Folkoff‐Box (1983) soil pCO² equations are used to develop chemical denudation models for different carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite), climate (tropical, temperate, and arctic/alpine terrains), and karst solution type (open and closed systems). The major conclusion is that the karst solution type, least known in the past karst studies, is an important factor in controlling chemical denudation rates.     

A World Model of Chemical Denudation in Karst Terrains

In this paper, I develop global karst chemical denudation models using chemical equilibrium equations. Theoretical karst chemical denudation rates are calculated as soil carbon dioxide concentration varies from 10^?3.5 atm to 10^?1.0 atm, temperature varies from 0°C to 30°C, and annual runoff varies from 500 mm to 3,000 mm. Both open and closed karst solution systems are examined. The Drake (1980) and the Brook-Folkoff-Box (1983) soil pCO² equations are used to develop chemical denudation models for different carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite), climate (tropical, temperate, and arctic/alpine terrains), and karst solution type (open and closed systems). The major conclusion is that the karst solution type, least known in the past karst studies, is an important factor in controlling chemical denudation rates.     

基于允许流失量和正负地形源汇理论的喀斯特关键带土壤侵蚀研究

喀斯特地区下垫面的特殊复杂性使得地表发生显著坡面径流需要达到更大的降水累积阈值,碳酸盐岩岩石成土速率的缓慢和空间异质性导致喀斯特地区的土壤存量被严重高估和均一化等,因此,传统经典的土壤侵蚀模型在喀斯特地区难以适用。本文依据喀斯特关键带岩性的差异,确定其有效降水侵蚀阈值,并对降雨侵蚀力进行重新测算;根据碳酸盐岩化学成分的差异,计算其成土速率并作为土壤允许流失量;通过地貌—水文分析法提取喀斯特洼地空间分布信息,对喀斯特关键带土壤侵蚀算法进行多次改进和创新。结果显示：① 传统算法忽视了喀斯特关键带下垫面的特殊性,致使其平均降雨侵蚀力被高估47.35%,且喀斯特区域的平均降雨侵蚀力仅相当于非喀斯特区域的59.91%;② 传统算法可能将一些无土或少土可流区计算为土壤的高侵蚀量区,而连续性碳酸盐岩、碳酸盐岩夹碎屑岩、碳酸盐岩与碎屑岩互层的土壤允许流失量仅分别为0.21 t ha^-1 yr^-1、1.2 t ha^-1 yr^-1、2.89 t ha^-1 yr^-1;③ 传统算法通常将有坡度和耕作的洼地视为土壤侵蚀的高发区,但其实际应是地表侵蚀的沉积区,喀斯特洼地在空间上的连续性与碳酸盐岩的分布区基本重合;④ 传统算法高估土壤侵蚀面积27.79%,土壤侵蚀量47.72%。总之,传统经典模型会大大高估喀斯特地区的土壤侵蚀量,因此,应该建立一种精确适用的模型。另外,由于喀斯特地区的成土速率慢而土层薄、总量少,土壤允许流失量远低于非喀斯特区域侵蚀标准,应制定适用于喀斯特地区的土壤侵蚀分类分级标准和风险评价方法。     

重庆市岩溶泉发育特征与流量控制机制分析

为给岩溶山区的经济发展和居民的生产生活提供水资源保障,论文以重庆市为例,通过查明重庆岩溶泉及其流量的发育规律和控制机制,利用1∶200000区域水文地质图和水文地质普查报告,运用水文地质勘查、统计分析和ArcGIS的空间分析等手段,在分析岩溶发育特征的基础上,分析地形地貌、地层岩性、地质构造和地表水系等因素对岩溶泉发育、分布及其流量的影响。结果表明：地势起伏度范围在0~200 m时最有利于岩溶泉的发育,随着地势起伏度的增加,岩溶泉平均流量开始逐渐减少;碳酸盐岩与碎屑岩岩组岩溶泉发育密度最大,其次为灰岩与白云岩互层岩组、灰岩岩组、白云岩岩组;构造复合部位、背斜缓翼、向斜轴部、断裂构造等地质构造部位均有利于岩溶泉发育;以岩溶水水动力特征及其与当地侵蚀基准面的相互关系为依据,将重庆市的岩溶大泉划分为以下3种类型：河床型、河岸型、河源型,而岩溶大泉分布数量由多到少分别为河岸型>河源型>河床型。     

中国喀斯特地貌的演化模式

中国喀斯特地貌的发育与岩性密切相关,并受许多因素的影响与控制。特别是新生代的两个构造事件和更新世的五次气候变换,都影响了喀斯特的发育。在计算典型喀斯特地区的上升、沉降、溶蚀与沉积等速率的基础上,本文重点探讨了喀斯特地貌演化的八个模式。     

Factors controlling carbonate dissolution rates quantified in a field test in the Austrian alps

Carbonate dissolution rates were investigated by measuring the mass difference of carbonate tablets exposed to natural dissolution for 1 year. 70 tablets were distributed over 13 test sites on the north slope of the Hochschwab Massif in the Austrian Alps. The influences of altitude, subsoil vs. sub-aerial exposure, vegetation, karst morphology, soil humidity, sample lithology, and sample surface morphology were investigated. The observed dissolution rates varied between 13 and 40 μm/a for subcutaneous samples and about 11 μm/a for sub-aerial exposure. Outstandingly high rates of 48 μm/a were observed in a doline and nearly zero rates were measured at a site influenced by seeping spring water.A mass balance, using high-resolution hydrological data, was calculated for the Kläffer Spring, which has an average outflow of 4.8 m³/s. It indicated a loss of 21×10⁶ kg of carbonate rock per year which gives an average dissolution rate of 95 μm/a for the catchment area of 83 km². The dissolution rates of 10 μm/a from the sub-aerially exposed samples are comparable to values from limestone pedestals, which were protected from dissolution by glacial erratics for the past 15 ka.     

贵州花江喀斯特峡谷水土流失状态分析

选取能较好反映喀斯特峡特征的花江峡谷作为研究对象，采用埋桩、修建沉沙及充分利用当地沟谷谷坊等手段相结合的方法，集中讨论了花江喀斯特峡谷水土流失的现状和特点。一方面，研究区的土壤侵蚀量远小于大多数非喀斯特地区，但并不是说喀斯特峡谷地区的水土流失不严重，相反，这正是水土流失发展到极其严重地步的必然现象，另一方面，流域的土壤侵蚀强度还受其内部岩性结构的影响碎屑岩的比重越大，土壤侵蚀模数也越大。同时，对不同天然植被条件下的土壤侵蚀监测发现，通过种草来减轻峡谷地区的土壤侵蚀是一条十分有效的途径。     

贵州岩溶荒漠化成因及其防治

岩溶荒漠化是贵州岩溶地区的主要生态环境问题之一,对土地生产力的破坏作用巨大。它是碳酸盐岩的侵蚀过程与人为活动共同作用的结果。分析了贵州碳酸盐岩区域侵蚀的地质背景,认为岩溶地区的碳酸盐岩侵蚀及地貌和生态环境特点、被侵蚀土粒的物质输送规律构成了岩溶荒漠化的自然基础,指出碳酸盐岩的化学侵蚀并非风化成土过程,以及一般的土壤侵蚀指标并不能代表岩溶地区土壤侵蚀的真实情况。同时还分析了岩溶荒漠化产生和发展过程中的不合理的人为活动的主要表现形式及其产生根源。在此基础上,本文提出了相应的综合防治措施。     

甘肃敦煌雅丹地质公园区风蚀气候侵蚀力特征

风蚀气候侵蚀力是潜在风力侵蚀强度的重要表征。基于2013年和2014年风速、降水和空气温度、湿度等气象要素的实地观测数据,对甘肃敦煌雅丹地质公园区的风蚀气候因子指数进行了逐月的计算和分析。结果表明：（1）研究区风蚀气候因子指数为151.98±0.13,是全国的三大极大值区之一;（2）研究区风蚀气候因子指数不同于全国干旱半干旱区基本季节变化特征,夏季最大,春夏季明显高于秋冬季,与新疆和田地区的季节变化特征相似;（3）研究区风蚀气候因子指数具有4—8月持续高值、9月至翌年3月持续低值的月变化特征;（4）风蚀气候因子指数的决定性气象因子是风速,而降水的减弱作用甚微;（5）一般来说,雅丹地貌分布区风蚀气候因子指数≥150。     

喀斯特地貌演化与喀斯特含水层特性

本文根据喀斯特含水层的结构、喀斯特地貌发育的动力过程,探讨不同的喀斯特地貌演化阶段及其相应的喀斯特含水层特征。     

Exploring the potential of perennial crops in reducing soil erosion: A GIS-based scenario analysis in southern Tuscany,Italy

Preserving soils is a major challenge in ensuring sustainable agriculture for the future. Soil erosion by water is a critical issue in the Mediterranean regions and usually occurs when high-erosive precipitation is in temporal association with poor vegetation cover and density. Modelling soil erosion risks over large spatial scales suffers from the scarcity of accurate information on land cover, rainfall erosivity and their intra-annual dynamics. We estimated the soil erosion risk on arable land in a Mediterranean area (Grosseto Province, southern Tuscany, Italy) and investigated its potential reduction as a response to the change in intra-annual distribution of land cover due to the increase of perennial forage crops. A GIS-based (R)USLE model was employed and a scenario analysis was performed by setting criteria for raising the performance of perennial forage crops. Statistical data on agricultural crops provided an insight into current intra-annual land cover dynamics. Rainfall erosivity was computed on the basis of 22-year hourly precipitation data. The model was used to: i) quantify the potential soil losses of arable land in the study area, ii) identify those areas highly affected by erosion risks iii) explore the potential for soil conservation of perennial crops, thereby enabling appropriate preventive measures to be identified. The erosion rates, averaged over an area of about 140’000 ha, are estimated to 33.42 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. More than 59% of the study area was subjected to soil losses higher than 11 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ (from moderate to severe erosion) and the highest rates are estimated for steep inland areas. Arable land with severe soil erosion rates (higher than 33 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹) represent about 35% of the whole study area. The risk of soil loss by water erosion in the study area is estimated to be reduced on average by 36% if perennial crops are increased in terms of 35% of the total arable land. The soil erosion data produced compared well with the published local and regional data. This study thus provides useful preliminary information for landscape planning authorities and can be used as a decision support tool in quantifying the implications of management policies.     

施秉喀斯特地貌世界遗产价值研究

对施秉喀斯特演化环境、地貌类型及分布、地貌演化史、石灰岩与白云岩地貌差异等特征进行研究,试图提炼施秉喀斯特的世界遗产地貌价值。研究表明：施秉喀斯特具有热带―亚热带地区独特的喀斯特地貌演化环境;展示了热带―亚热带地区独特而典型的白云岩峰丛峡谷喀斯特地貌景观,从分水岭至峡谷区呈现了峰林洼地―峰林谷地―峰丛谷地―峰丛峡谷喀斯特地貌逆向回春演替规律,是白云岩峡谷喀斯特地貌形态及地貌演化的模式地;记录了古生代以来3次较大的碰撞运动,即早古生代的加里东运动,晚古生代的海西造山运动,及中、新生代以来的印支运动、燕山运动和喜马拉雅山运动。燕山运动是本区最强烈的造山运动,产生了区内众多褶皱和断裂构造,奠定了施秉地区的地貌构造轮廓。喜马拉雅山运动,尤其是第二、三幕运动,全面塑造了施秉喀斯特峡谷地貌;施秉白云岩喀斯特地貌展现出与石灰岩封闭型地貌不同的以开放型地貌为主的特征,在中国南方喀斯特系列自然遗产中有重要地位,具备地貌世界遗产价值。     

Erosion rates in badland areas recorded by collectors,erosion pins and profilometer techniques (Ebro Basin,NE-Spain)

In badland areas of the Ebro Basin, in a semiarid climate, two erosion plots (257 m²; 5° slope and 128 m²; 23° slope) on exposed Tertiary clays were monitored over two years (Nov. 1991–Nov. 1993). This material is characterized by high sodium absorption ratios which lead to high soil dispersivity. The dominant erosion processes in both plots are rilling and sheet erosion. Rainfall intensity was recorded at a weather station, connected to a data-logger, sediment production for single events was collected in tanks, and ground lowering was measured every six months by erosion pins and microtopographic profile gauge techniques. Significant runoff was produced only by rainfall events above 5 mm. Another threshold at 20 mm rain was noted. For rainfalls higher than 20 mm, the 23° slope plot shows a greater runoff response than the 5° one. Rainfall events exceeding this threshold showed a higher sediment production for the steeper slope. In the relationship between precipitation and sediment concentration, an envelope curve can be drawn indicating that any rainfall event of a given amount and intensity has a maximum sediment concentration which we speculate to be a function of the runoff sediment transport capacity. Runoff response and sediment yield in the studied plots are controlled by the rainfall and soil characteristics and their seasonal variations. In both plots, the erosion pins show that erosion rates in rill areas are 25–50% higher than in the interrill areas. Sediment yield recorded by collector devices was higher than the rates measured by erosion pins. The erosion rates based on rill cross-sections by profilometers were higher than the ones recorded by collectors.     

Effects of Fe3+ on Dissolution Dynamics of Carbonate Rocks in a Shallow Burial Reservoir

Dissolution of carbonates in acidic fluids, which has attracted much research attention in recent years, is of great significance for the formation of high-quality reservoirs. The dissolution stage under low temperature and low pressure in shallow burial is one of the most important processes of reservoir dissolution and transformation. However, the dissolution dynamics of carbonate rocks in shallow burial and their formation have been controversial for a long time, and there are still disputes in the dissolution processes about how associated minerals and accessory minerals (e.g., pyrite) in carbonate reservoirs influence the formation of secondary pores. Additional metal ions in acidic fluids can change fluid properties and dissolution processes, and consequently affect reservoir quality. However, there are few laboratory studies done on the effect of associated minerals on the dissolution dynamics of carbonates. To clarify the specific impact of Fe-bearing associated minerals and Fe³⁺ on the dissolution of carbonates in shallow burial reservoirs, six samples of typical carbonate rocks in the Zigui area of Hubei Province, China were studied. The dissolution kinetics of carbonates in dilute hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid solutions containing metal ions (Fe³⁺/Ca²⁺/Mn²⁺) at ambient temperature and pressure (T?=?25 °C, P?=?1 atm) were studied, by laboratory dissolution experiments combined with numerical simulations using PHREEQC. The results show that the Fe³⁺ is of great significance on the dissolution of carbonate rocks, while the influences of Ca²⁺ and Mn²⁺ are relatively weak. The dissolutions degrees of micritic limestone (ZG-L25), dolomitic limestone (ZG-L7) and dolomite (ZG-D9) were better than the other carbonates under the influence of metal ions (Fe³⁺/Ca²⁺/Mn²⁺) in acid solutions. Therefore, the dolomite reservoir of the Cambrian Qinjiamiao Formation, the dolomitic limestone reservoir of the Tianheban Formation and the limestone reservoir of the Triassic Daye Formation in the Zigui area are potential high-quality reservoirs. The carbonate reservoirs associated with Fe-bearing minerals were easier to dissolve and formed secondary pores under shallow burial. This process is beneficial to the formation of high-quality reservoirs. Moreover, the addition of Fe³⁺ into hydrochloric acid solution may be conducive to improving the reservoirs acidizing effect. Furthermore, the results gave innovative results from multiple perspectives of geo-material science and computational geosciences, which may provide new avenues for in-depth study of carbonate dissolution in shallow burial based on water–rock reaction, chemical dissolution, computational simulation, and geological background.

     

Erosions on the southern Tibetan Plateau: Evidence from in-situ cosmogenic nuclides 10Be and 26Al in fluvial sediments

Investigating topographic and climatic controls on erosion at variable spatial and temporal scales is essential to our understanding of the topographic evolution of the orogen.In this work,we quantified millennial-scale erosion rates deduced from cosmogenic 10Be and 26Al concentrations in 15 fluvial sediments from the mainstream and major tributaries of the Yarlung Zangbo River draining the southern Tibetan Plateau (TP).The measured ratios of 26Al/10Be range from 6.33 ± 0.29 to 8.96 ± 0.37,suggesting steady-state erosion processes.The resulted erosion rates vary from 20.60 ± 1.79 to 154.00 ± 13.60 m Myr-1,being spatially low in the upstream areas of the Gyaca knickpoint and high in the downstream areas.By examining the relationships between the erosion rate and topographic or climatic indices,we found that both topography and climate play significant roles in the erosion process for basins in the upstream areas of the Gyaca knickpoint.However,topography dominantly controls the erosion processes in the downstream areas of the Gyaca knickpoint,whereas variations in precipitation have only a second-order control.The marginal Himalayas and the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin (YZRB) yielded significantly higher erosion rates than the central plateau,which indicated that the landscape of the central plateau surface is remarkably stable and is being intensively consumed at its boundaries through river headward erosion.In addition,our 10Be erosion rates are comparable to present-day hydrologic erosion rates in most cases,suggesting either weak human activities or long-term steady-state erosion in this area.     

An environmental model of fluvial tufas in the monsoonal tropics,Barkly karst,northern Australia

Spring-fed streams that deposit tufa (ambient temperature freshwater calcium carbonate deposits) in the tropics of northern Australia are influenced strongly by perennially warm water temperatures, high evaporation rates, and monsoon driven high-magnitude floods. This paper presents an environmental model that will aid interpretation of fossil fluvial tufas throughout monsoonal Australia. In the Barkly karst, northern Australia, tufas form in dam, cascade and pool/waterhole geomorphic environments. Each environment is represented in the morphostratigraphical record by a specific combination of tufa geomorphic units and facies associations. A diverse array of tufa facies is present, including microphytic, larval, calcite raft, macrophytic and allochthonous types.Preservation of particular Barkly karst tufa facies is thought to reflect the strength of monsoonal floods. A strong monsoon is represented by an abundance of flood indicators such as the allochthonous phytoclastic, lithoclastic and intraclastic tufa facies. Conversely, evidence of weak monsoons or a prolonged absence of floods may include oncoids, calcite rafts and thick accumulations of fine carbonate sediments. The history of the Australian monsoon is not fully understood. However, fossil tufa deposits, which record terrestrial climate information, have been preserved throughout northern Australia and hold great potential for reconstructing the region's climate history. Fossil tufa sequences at two Barkly karst sites have been interpreted using the new model. It can be applied to other Barkly karst fossil tufas as well as those in similar environments elsewhere in the world.     

基于岩溶生态系统特性的水土流失敏感性评价

在岩溶地区大范围内进行土壤侵蚀风险评价需要寻求新的简单有效的方法,建立适合岩溶地区特点的评估模型,才能避免水土流失治理规划的失误。考虑岩溶地区碳酸盐岩成土速率低、存在石漠化等特点,选取土壤允许流失量和退化岩溶生态系统的基岩裸露率,结合年平均降水、坡度、植被指数,在生成各单因素评价图的基础上,在Arcview中完成单因素图的叠加分析,得到贵州省岩溶地区水土流失敏感性综合评价图,并将其划分为不敏感、轻度敏感、中度敏感和强度敏感四级。在此基础上,探讨了贵州省水土流失敏感性的空间分异规律,提出水土流失预防治理的优先区。     

Using unsupported lead-210 measurements to investigate soil erosion and sediment delivery in a small Zambian catchment

Traditional techniques used to assemble information on rates of erosion and soil redistribution possess many important limitations. As a result, the use of environmental radionuclides, and more particularly ¹³⁷Cs measurements, has attracted increasing attention in recent years as a means of obtaining spatially distributed information on rates of erosion and deposition. The application of the ¹³⁷Cs approach is, however, hampered in some areas of the world where ¹³⁷Cs inventories are low and the low concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs found in soils and sediments cause problems for laboratory analysis. These problems will increase as time progresses due to the radioactive decay of the existing inventory, most of which was deposited as fallout ca. 40 years ago. This contribution explores the potential for using another fallout radionuclide, namely unsupported ²¹⁰Pb, as an alternative to ¹³⁷Cs, in the small (63 km²) Upper Kaleya catchment in southern Zambia where ¹³⁷Cs inventories are already very low. The approach employed with unsupported ²¹⁰Pb is similar to that used for ¹³⁷Cs, although the essentially constant fallout of unsupported ²¹⁰Pb through time means that the resulting estimates of erosion and soil redistribution rates reflect a longer period of time (ca. 100 years rather than ca. 40 years). The estimates of erosion and deposition rates derived from the unsupported ²¹⁰Pb measurements are used to construct typical sediment budgets for the three main land-use types in the Upper Kaleya catchment, namely, commercial cultivation, communal cultivation and bush grazing. The results obtained from the unsupported ²¹⁰Pb are compared with equivalent results based on ¹³⁷Cs measurements provided by a previous investigation undertaken in the study catchment. The two sets of results are highly consistent. The study reported confirms the viability of using unsupported ²¹⁰Pb as an alternative to ¹³⁷Cs in this environment and demonstrates that conjunctive use of both radionuclides can provide additional information on the erosional history of a study area.     

贵州喀斯特山区农业生态环境的脆弱性及可持续发展对策

贵州喀斯特山区的农业生态环境极为脆弱，对农业的可持续发展带来了很大的不利影响。本文认为其脆弱性主要是由喀斯特自然过程和人为活动共同作用的结果。并据此探讨了其环境整治和农业可持续发展的战略途径及相应的发展模式。     

贵州麦岗水库沉积物的矿物磁性特征及其土壤侵蚀意义

对取自贵州西南部紫云县麦岗水库的沉积物柱芯MG1-1进行了包括SIRM、ARM、χlf、χfd、IRM-20mT和IRM-100mT等磁性参数的矿物磁性测量,并计算了ARM/SIRM、HIRM和IRM-100mT/SIRM。根据沉积物的这些矿物磁性特征,并结合137Cs、粒度、TOC、C/N分析结果,推测了麦岗水库流域在1960～2007年(47年)间的土壤侵蚀变化情况。研究表明:麦岗水库流域的土壤侵蚀强度变化虽然存在一些波动,但整体上呈现由强到弱到强再到弱的变化过程。结合降水资料和土地利用/土地覆被变化情况,探讨了影响土壤侵蚀变化的主要原因。结果表明,降水量对流域土壤侵蚀变化的影响不大,而人类活动,特别是土地利用的变化可能是引起流域土壤侵蚀变化的主要原因。