Visualizing Summertime Lightning Patterns on Colorado Fourteeners

In the context of lightning avoidance, this article explores temporal and spatial patterns of cloud-to-ground lightning strikes to Colorado Fourteeners, the popularly summited set of mountains that exceed 4,267 m (14,000 ft). The article describes the Fourteener concept, examines trends in lightning fatalities and injuries, and reviews thunderstorm climatology across the greater Colorado landscape. Fifteen years (1996–2010) of summertime lightning activity at near-summit locations are examined. Three measures characterize lightning activity for fifty-four Fourteeners: (1) overall strikes received, (2) lightning days, and (3) the time of day when lightning first strikes. Maps, histograms, and ranked lists identify trends and anomalies generated from the three measures. Examples of highest potential risks include Pikes Peak for Fourteener, Front Range for mountain range, and the third week of July for time of summer. The results can help avoid lightning when making long-term plans to visit Fourteeners and can heighten awareness when on Fourteeners. In addition to lightning avoidance, the article contributes to mountain geography and related atmospheric, physical, and social sciences.     

A geographical analysis of warm season lightning/landscape interactions across Colorado,USA

This article analyzes lightning/landscape interactions across the State of Colorado. Ten years (2003–2012) of warm season cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity are mapped at 500 × 500 m² to characterize the distribution of thunderstorm activity. Geospatial analyses quantify lightning activity by elevation, physiographic region, and mountain range, and time-series animations outline the general movement of thunderstorms. From these spatio-temporal perspectives, our objective is to elucidate lightning/landscape interactions as they occur over a topographically and climatologically diverse landscape. The information aids meteorologists by exposing orographic and rainshadow effects, mesoscale meteorological effects, fluxes of moisture sources, thunderstorm initiation zones, and thunderstorm movements. Other benefits extend to wildland fire managers, those who maintain lightning-vulnerable infrastructures, and, from a human risk perspective, an overall awareness to those who work and play outdoors. Major findings include (1) elevation alone does not determine the degree of lightning activity, (2) across the state's mountain ranges, lightning density varies considerably, but the number of lightning days does not, and (3) the time of lightning initiation and maxima varies by elevation, with higher mountain elevations experiencing most activity 1 h before lower mountain elevations, and 3 h before lower Great Plains locations.     

Effects of land use,slope gradient,and soil and water conservation structures on runoff and soil loss in semi-arid Northern Ethiopia

April lightning production in Richmond County, Georgia, from 1995 to 2003 is considered with regard to the associated risk to golfers and spectators at the Master's Golf Tournament and courses throughout the county. An examination of the April lightning climatology of Georgia, focusing on Richmond County, reveals a minimum in lightning activity during the time of the tournament (the first full week of April). A discriminant analysis of Richmond County lightning production utilizes several meteorological variables in order to discern between three categories of April lightning days: little or no lightning activity, minimal lightning activity, and high lightning activity. The analysis distinguishes relatively well between the categories with only 13.5% of the events misclassified. A composite regional analysis of the three lightning categories illustrates the environmental differences between these events. Although the little or no lightning and high lightning categories are somewhat similar environmentally, the intensity of features separates these events and allows for interpretation. The statistical and synoptic analyses together emphasize the importance of low-level instability and frontal proximity and intensity in enhancing lightning production in thunderstorms during April in and surrounding Richmond County. A multitude of meteorological conditions can lead to thunderstorm development. Localized studies of these environments, especially during times of major outdoor sporting events, are needed to help mitigate the risk associated with lightning.     

1961-2011年甘肃雷暴气候分布特征及变化趋势

利用1961-2011年甘肃省63个测站的雷暴观测资料,采用气候倾向率趋势系数和小波分析方法,研究了甘肃省雷暴气候变化特征。结果表明:年平均雷暴日数呈东北-西南走向,东北少、西南多,全省平均为24 d,有3个雷暴高发中心,地形是影响甘肃雷暴空间分布的主要因子。近51年中,1961-1990年为多雷暴期,1991-2011年为少雷暴期,雷暴日数总体呈减少趋势,其中甘南高原减少速率最快,每10年约减少4 d,这可能与对流有效位能和700 hPa相对湿度的下降有关。在春、夏、秋三季中,夏季雷暴日数减少的趋势最为明显,每10年减少3.4 d,尤以6月最甚。初、终雷暴日的地区差异较大,甘南高原初雷暴日出现最早,终雷暴日结束最晚,河西走廊初雷暴日出现最晚,终雷暴日结束最早,因此甘南高原是甘肃雷暴期最长的地区,达204 d,河西走廊则最短,为105 d。近51年来甘肃雷暴期的缩短主要是初雷暴日的显著推后和终雷暴日的提前所致。小波分析表明甘肃雷暴日数存在24 a和8 a的周期震荡,当前雷暴的发生正处在一个偏少的周期内。     

Spatial analysis of thunderstorms and lightning casualties in Bangladesh

Considering the adverse outcomes of thunderstorm-mediated lightning in recent years, this study aimed to identify the most thunderstorm-and-casualty prone regions and seasons in Bangladesh, via geospatial mapping. We attempted to forecast the number of yearly thunderstorm (TS) days for each meteorological station and district-level lightning casualties by using TS days as a proxy variable. Data on TS days and lightning casualties were collected from Bangladesh Meteorological Department and Network for Information, Response And Preparedness Activities on Disaster respectively. This study analysed 629 fatalities and 232 injuries. The Integrated Nested Laplace Approximation with Matern covariance function was employed to assess the spatial pattern of TS days. Polynomial regressions were used to forecast the number of TS days and the single clustered Generalized Estimating Equations method was employed to explore the relationship between the number of TS days and lightning casualties. The results indicated that the mean number of TS days per station increased in recent years, particularly in February, March, April, and September. We found the months of April, May, June, and September to be the most threatening months due to TS events and related casualties. The northeast region was identified as the most TS-prone region with the highest number of casualties in Bangladesh. Our analysis suggests that it might remain the most hazardous region in coming years.     

EEMD在雷暴日趋势特征分析中的应用

首先利用整体经验模态分解算法（EEMD）对加入高斯白噪声后的香港地区雷暴日时间序列进行本征模态函数（IMF）分解;其次对各IMF分量进行Hilbert变换,提取雷暴日波动特征参量,并给出雷暴日序列的Hilbert谱和边际谱;最后对各雷暴日IMF分量进行显著性检验。结果表明：香港地区近67 a雷暴日序列可分解为1项趋势项和5个中心频率不同的IMF分量,其中能量主要集中在0.35~0.5 Hz和0~0.05 Hz频段;通过分析IMF能量谱密度-周期分布,得出雷暴日变化周期为2.8 a左右的年际变化和25 a左右的代际变化为主要变化周期,其次是4.5 和7.1 a左右的年际变化为次要变化周期,从趋势项可知香港地区雷暴日呈波动上升趋势。EEMD算法可较好地用于雷暴日趋势特征分析。     

甘肃春季(3～5月)沙尘暴成因分析

甘肃春季(3～5月)沙尘暴小波变换分析清楚地反映了甘肃春季沙尘暴不同时间尺度周期振荡的交替作用。甘肃中西部自20世纪80年代以来变暖,其变暖与太阳黑子周期长度(SCL)密切相关。甘肃春季沙尘暴与甘肃中西部热力因子和降水研究表明,当冬季冷空气活动频繁,春季气温回升快,气温波动幅度大,降水偏少,甘肃春季容易发生沙尘暴。     

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF INTENSE CONVECTIVE WEATHER — THUNDERSTORMS AND HAIL IN CHINA

Thunderstorms and hail are important features in the climatology of China. Using occurrences of thunderstorm days or hail days, the spatial and temporal distribution of these phenomena are described. Location, relief, thermal activity, and air mass convergence all contribute to seasonal variations and peak concentrations. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in summer is the most active thunderstorm area of the Northern Hemisphere at 30° to 35° of latitude, but extreme occurrence occurs in Yunnan Province, with thunderstorms experienced on more than 43% of days during the year.

Hailstorms in China usually pioduce small hail which causes minimal damage. Occurrences of squalls, however, may form extensive hailswaths accompanied by large hailstones. These long duration hailswaths are potentially very destructive. Middle and eastern areas of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau may experience over 30 days a year on which hail occurs. The extreme occurrence of 53 hail days was recorded at Nagu. Although thunderstorm days tend to follow seasonal variation of winter and summer monsoon shifts, hail days correlate more to shifts in air mass convergence.     

南极长城站海雾形成的气候背景及天气形势分析

基于长城站气象观测数据和NCEP再分析资料,分析研究了长城站海雾的发生背景和天气形势。认为长城站海雾的季节性变化是大气环流、地面气压场变化的结果;长城站海雾形成的天气形势基本可分为低压锋前型、鞍型场型和弱气旋过境型3类,其中低压锋前型是长城站海雾形成的主要天气形势。长城站以平流冷却雾为主,也存在其它类型的雾。本文从天气学角度分析了长城站海雾发生的原因,为该地区的海雾预报提供了依据。     

45 a来宁夏雷暴气候统计特征及趋势分析

 利用1961—2005年宁夏逐日雷暴资料,利用数理统计、小波分析等方法,揭示出了宁夏雷暴天气气候统计特征和演变趋势。结果表明,宁夏总体上属中雷区,年平均出现雷暴日为86.62 d,年际变化幅度大,多、少雷暴年均有7 a,雷暴日最多年为118 d,最少年为65 d;45 a来雷暴的发生有逐渐减少的趋势,并以3.072 d/10a的气候倾向率递减,且存在3~4 a的较短周期和8 a左右的较长周期振荡;雷暴多发生在3—10月,主要集中出现在夏季,尤以7月突出,有明显的季、月变化,冬季雷暴出现的概率非常低;初雷日平均出现在4月中旬,终雷日平均出现在9月中旬,全区平均雷暴初终日间日数为139 d左右;雷暴发生有明显的日变化特征,有双峰型和单峰型之分,集中出现在11:00—22:00时,其中,15:00时前后为雷暴发生高频时;雷暴的发生与地形、地势有密切关系。     

广西雷暴活动特点分析

根据气象台站的雷电观测记录,分析广西境内雷电活动的基本特点,认为广西是我国雷暴最多的地区之一,与中南半岛多雷区相连,是以马来半岛、澳洲北部为中心的雷暴高发区的向北延伸.2月份,伴随着副热带西风急流的南压,初雷自北向南开始;终雷出现在10月中下旬,与副热带高压脊线的南撤、东南季风撤出大陆的日期相一致.ITCZ的影响是广西成为多雷区的主要原因.平均雷暴日数的峰值就出现在ITCZ影响广西最多的8月份.地形对雷电活动有明显影响,广西地形的弧形山结构明显地改变着雷暴活动的空间分布.十万大山的抬升、来自南海、琼州海峡     

Spatial Ecology of Pre –Euro‐American Fires in a Southern Rocky Mountain Subalpine Forest Landscape

Natural disturbances such as fires have been widely studied, but less is known about their spatial ecology than about other aspects of them. We reconstructed and mapped pre–Euro‐American fire history in a subalpine forest landscape in southeastern Wyoming, and analyzed the fires using GIS. Mean fire interval varies little with topography (elevation, aspect, slope) and is spatially autocorrelated at distances of at least 2 km. Fires often spread downslope, and spread more than expected from the north and south and less than expected from the west, under the influence of particular synoptic climatic conditions. The landscape of 1868 a.d., at the time of Euro‐American settlement, was strongly influenced by fires. However, it contained large patches of connected forest and few high‐contrast edges, unlike the modern landscape, which is fragmented by industrial forestry and roads. The spatial ecology of the natural fire regime may be a useful guide for management.     

Influences of forest roads on the spatial patterns of human- and lightning-caused wildfire ignitions

Understanding the spatial patterns of fire ignitions and fire sizes is essential for understanding fire regimes. Although previous studies have documented associations of human-caused fire ignitions with road corridors, less consideration has been given to understanding the multiple influences of roads on the fire regime at a broader landscape-scale. Therefore, we examined the difference between lightning- and human-caused fire ignitions in relation to forest road corridors and other anthropogenic and biophysical factors in the eastern Cascade Mountains of Washington State. We used geographical information systems and case-control logistic regression models to assess the relative importance of these explanatory variables that influence the locations of lightning versus human-caused ignitions.We found that human-caused ignitions were concentrated close to roads, in high road density areas, and near the wildland-urban interface (WUI). In contrast, lightning-caused ignitions were concentrated in low road density areas, away from WUI, and in low population density areas. Lightning-caused ignitions were also associated with fuels and climatic and topographic factors. A weak but significant relationship between lightning-caused fire and proximity to gravel roads may be related to fuels near roads or to bias in detection and reporting of lightning-caused fires near roads. Although most small fires occurred in roaded areas, they accounted for only a small proportion of the total burned area. In contrast, the large fires in roadless and wilderness areas accounted for most of the burned area. Thus, from the standpoint of the total area burned, the effect of forest roads on restricting fire size is likely greater than the impact of roads on increasing fire ignitions. The results of our study suggest that roads and their edge effect area should be more widely acknowledged as a unique type of landscape effect in fire research and management.     

SYNOPTIC-SCALE VARIABILITY IN THE PROBABILITY OF PRECIPITATION FROM THUNDERSTORMS IN THE UNITED STATES

A synoptic-scale climatology of precipitation amounts from thunderstorms was developed by analysis of amounts from individual storms for 220 stations in the conterminous United States for the period 1948-1977. The probability of having a thunderstorm without rainfall was assessed for each station. For storms which did produce precipitation, the probability distribution of amounts was found to be well summarized by the incomplete gamma distribution. Sets of seasonal maps of the probability of receiving any measurable amount, less than 4 mm, and more than 20 mm of precipitation are presented. Consistent spatial patterns are found. Thunder without precipitation is most likely in the west. The greatest probability of heavy precipitation occurs along the Gulf Coast, extending in the summer throughout the mid-section of the nation. Topographic effects are apparent, with mountainous areas generally having less intense precipitation than surrounding regions. [Key World: thunderstorms, precipitation probabilities, gamma distribution.]     

A SYNOPTIC CLIMATOLOGY OF NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES TORNADOES

This study documents the spatial and temporal characteristics of northeast United States tornadoes and the synoptic patterns associated with their development. Daily 1200 UTC surface pressure, 500 mb height and 850 mb temperature data are used in a compositing analysis to indicate the general conditions on tornado-producing days during four quasi-seasonal periods. Temporally, two-thirds of all northeast tornadoes occur between the hours of 1800 UTC and 0000 UTC. Annually, greater than 75% occur during the four-month period from May through August. During the period of study (1950 through 1986) the region had an average of 30 tornado occurrences per year. Spatially, three preferred areas of tornadic development are identified across the northeast region. These areas include western and southeastern Pennsylvania and north-central Massachusetts. The general synoptic patterns associated with tornadic events in the northeast United States remain consistent throughout the year. The composite analyses indicate that the presence of a strong surface low pressure system moving through the Great Lakes, coupled with significant upper-level divergence associated with a vigorous shortwave feature and a cold frontal boundary, are the synoptic features most common during the initiation of tornadic storms in this region. [Key words: synoptic climatology, tornadoes, northeastern United States.]     

黄土高原地区沙尘暴形成的自然地理因素:Ⅱ多元回归分析与地带性特征

以黄土高原地区227个县的资料为基础,运用逐步回归的方法,建立了年均沙尘暴日数与影响因子之间的多元回归方程。黄土高原地区沙尘暴的分布具有一定的地带性。从西北向东南,年降水量逐渐增加,气候由干旱、半干旱向半湿润过渡。地表物质由风成沙、沙黄土向典型黄土和粘黄土过渡,天然植被类型由干旱荒漠、干草原、森林草原、草原森林向落叶阔叶林过渡,自然地理因子的地带性分异导致了沙尘暴的频率按同一方向递减。建立的回归方程表明,地表物质的抗蚀性对沙尘暴的影响较大,年降水量次之,大风日数居第三。通过合理的人类活动增加地表的抗蚀性,可以减低沙尘暴的发生频率。     

A geography of natural perils

Earthquakes, tropical cyclones and floods are the most important natural perils in terms of human deaths on a global basis. In Australia, at least 4300 deaths in the last 200 years have been produced by heatwaves; about 2000–2200 each by tropical cyclones and floods; and bushfires and lightning strikes have each killed at least 650 people. On a global basis it appears that floods, tropical storms, droughts and earthquakes are the most damaging natural perils. In Australia, in terms of median damage per event, hailstorms are the most expensive insured natural peril, while three events—the 1989 Newcastle earthquake, 1974's Cyclone Tracy, and the 1990 Sydney hailstorm—produced 36 per cent of the total insured damage in the period since 1967. The Newcastle earthquake and the Sydney hailstorm have provided opportunities for new understandings of these perils and their consequences. While much has been learnt from the devastation of Rabaul town by the 1994 eruption, a rare opportunity for a detailed study of building damage has been lost. Without detailed studies, risk rating, where Risk = Hazard (or peril) × Vulnerability, is difficult.     

阿克苏地区雷暴时空变化特征

 利用阿克苏地区1960—2010年雷暴资料,采用气候倾向率、保证率等气候诊断方法,探讨了阿克苏地区雷暴的时空分布规律、气候变化趋势等。结果表明,阿克苏地区雷暴空间分布表现为西多东少、北多南少,位于该地区西部的乌什县为雷暴多发中心;全区年平均雷暴日数为18.7~52.0 d;阿克苏地区每10 a雷暴日数减少2.8 d;雷暴主要集中在3—11月,7月达到最大值,11月下旬至翌年2月基本无雷暴;80%的保证率下雷暴初日出现在5月中旬至下旬之间,雷暴终日出现在9月下旬至10月中旬之间;阿克苏地区一日当中雷暴主要发生在午后至前半夜,雷暴高峰值出现在16—19时,雷暴平均持续时间在35~47 min,雷暴出现最多的方位是W和N。     

遥感、地图、地理信息系统—体化应用

遥感、地图和地理信息系统（ＯＩＳ）三者呈“你中有我，我中有你”的相辅相成关系．三者一体化应用使地球科学得以进展，又能在资源开发、环境保护、自然灾害监测评价等方面发挥重要作用．一体化应用的基础是掌握三者的学科一技术特性与相通关系．