A Review of “Tectonic Faults: Agents of Change on a Dynamic Earth”

The fluvial system represents a nested hierarchy that reflects the relationship among different spatial and temporal scales. Within the hierarchy, larger scale variables influence the characteristics of the next lower nested scale. Ecoregions represent one of the largest scales in the fluvial hierarchy and are defined by recurring patterns of geology, climate, land use, soils, and potential natural vegetation. Watersheds, the next largest scale, are often nested into a single ecoregion and therefore have properties that are indicative of a given ecoregion. Differences in watershed morphology (relief, drainage density, circularity ratio, relief ratio, and ruggedness number) were evaluated among three ecoregions in eastern Oklahoma: Ozark Highlands, Boston Mountains, and Ouachita Mountains. These ecoregions were selected because of their high-quality stream resources and diverse aquatic communities and are of special management interest to the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation. One hundred thirty-four watersheds in first- through fourth-order streams were compared. Using a nonparametric, two-factor analysis of variance (α= 0.05) we concluded that the relief, drainage density, relief ratio, and ruggedness number all changed among ecoregion and stream order, whereas circularity ratio only changed with stream order. Our study shows that ecoregions can be used as a broad-scale framework for watershed management.     

Downstream variation in bankfull width of wadeable streams across the conterminous United States

Bankfull channel width is a fundamental measure of stream size and a key parameter of interest for many applications in hydrology, fluvial geomorphology, and stream ecology. We developed downstream hydraulic geometry relationships for bankfull channel width w as a function of drainage area A, w = α A^β, (DHG_wA) for nine aggregate ecoregions comprising the conterminous United States using 1588 sites from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Wadeable Streams Assessment (WSA), including 1152 sites from a randomized probability survey sample. Sampled stream reaches ranged from 1 to 75 m in bankfull width and 1 to 10,000 km² in drainage area. The DHG_wA exponent β, which expresses the rate at which bankfull stream width scales with drainage area, fell into three distinct clusters ranging from 0.22 to 0.38. Width increases more rapidly with basin area in the humid Eastern Highlands (encompassing the Northern and Southern Appalachians and the Ozark Mountains) and the Upper Midwest (Great Lakes region) than for the West (both mountainous and xeric areas), the southeastern Coastal Plain, and the Northern Plains (the Dakotas and Montana). Stream width increases least rapidly with basin area in the Temperate Plains (cornbelt) and Southern Plains (Great Prairies) in the heartland. The coefficient of determination (r²) was least in the noncoastal plains (0.36–0.41) and greatest in the Appalachians and Upper Midwest (0.68–0.77). DHG_wA equations differed between streams with dominantly fine bed material (silt/sand) and those with dominantly coarse bed material (gravel/cobble/boulder) in six of the nine analysis regions. Where DHG_wA equations varied by sediment size, fine-bedded streams were consistently narrower than coarse-bedded streams. Within the Western Mountains ecoregion, where there were sufficient sites to develop DHG_wA relationships at a finer spatial scale, α and β ranged from 1.23 to 3.79 and 0.23 to 0.40, respectively, with r² > 0.50 for 10 of 13 subregions (range: 0.36 to 0.92). Enhanced DHG equations incorporating additional data for three landscape variables that can be derived from GIS—mean annual precipitation, elevation, and mean reach slope—significantly improved equation fit and predictive value in several regions, most notably the Western Mountains and the Temperate Plains. Channel width was also related to human disturbance. We examined the influence of human disturbance on channel width using several indices of local and basinwide disturbance. Contrary to our expectations, the data suggest that the dominant response of channel width to human disturbance in the United States is a reduction in bankfull width in streams with greater disturbance, particularly in the Western Mountains (where population density, road density, agricultural land use, and local riparian disturbance were all negatively related to channel width) and in the Appalachians and New England (where urban and agricultural land cover and riparian disturbance were all negatively associated with channel width).     

湖泊型流域水生态功能分区的理论与应用

地域分异是地理学核心研究方向之一,水生态功能分区是地学分区面向生态环境领域的发展和应用。基于水生态分区的管理是流域水环境管理的趋势,流域水生态功能分区是建立中国新型水环境管理的基础。论文在界定水生态功能分区涉及的主要概念基础上,分析了湖泊型流域水生态系统的尺度,为湖泊型流域水生态功能分区体系的建立奠定了理论基础;根据分区的目的,建立了分区的原则和指标体系,研发了分区技术、结果验证校核方法;以巢湖流域为例,进行了一级至四级水生态功能分区,并对分区结果进行验证。湖泊型流域水生态功能分区有助于丰富地域分异规律研究,对水生态目标管理的理论与方法具有指导作用。     

Downstream hydrologic and geomorphic effects of large dams on American rivers

The hydrology and geomorphology of large rivers in America reflect the pervasive influence of an extensive water control infrastructure including more than 75,000 dams. One hundred thirty-seven of the very large dams, each storing 1.2 km³ (10⁶ acre feet) of water or more, alter the flows of every large river in the country. The hydrologic effects of these very large dams emerge from an analysis of the stream gage records of 72 river reaches organized into 36 pairs. One member of each pair is an unregulated reach above a dam, whereas the other is a regulated reach downstream from the same structure. Comparison of the regulated and unregulated reaches shows that very large dams, on average, reduce annual peak discharges 67% (in some individual cases up to 90%), decrease the ratio of annual maximum/mean flow 60%, decrease the range of daily discharges 64%, increase the number of reversals in discharge by 34%, and reduce the daily rates of ramping as much as 60%. Dams alter the timing of high and low flows and change the timing of the yearly maximum and minimum flows, in some cases by as much as half a year. Regional variation in rivers, dams, and responses are substantial: rivers in the Great Plains and Ozark/Ouachita regions have annual maximum/mean flow ratios that are 7 times greater than ratios for rivers in the Pacific Northwest. At the same time, the ratio of storage capacity/mean annual water yield for dams is greatest for Interior Western, Ozark/Ouachita and Great Plains rivers and least for Pacific Northwest streams. Thus, in many cases those rivers with the highest annual variability have the greatest potential impact from dams because structures can exert substantial control over downstream hydrology. The hydrologic changes by dams have fostered dramatic geomorphic differences between regulated and unregulated reaches. When compared to similar unregulated reaches, regulated reaches have 32% larger low flow channels, 50% smaller high flow channels, 79% less active flood plain area, and 3.6 times more inactive flood plain area. Dams also affect the area of active areas, the functional surfaces that are functionally connected to the present regime of the river. Regulated reaches have active areas that are 72 smaller than the active areas of similar unregulated reaches. The geomorphic complexity (number of separate functional surfaces per unit of channel length) is 37% less in regulated reaches. Reductions in the size of hydrologically active functional surfaces are greatest in rivers in the Great Plains and least in Eastern streams. The largest differences in geomorphic complexity are in interior western rivers. The shrunken, simplified geomorphology of regulated large rivers has had direct effects on riparian ecology, producing spatially smaller, less diverse riparian ecosystems compared to the larger, more complex ecosystems along unregulated reaches of rivers.     

WESTERN RANGE BOUNDARIES OF FLOODPLAIN TREES IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES

Forest vegetation in the southeastern United States extends westward beyond the Ozark and Ouachita plateaus in Arkansas and Missouri into the Central Plains. Along this transect, luxuriant forests give way to mixed forests and grasslands that include smaller trees and progressively fewer tree species and eventually to grassland‐dominated landscapes in central Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. This transition is directly related to decreasing precipitation with distance to the west of the Mississippi River valley. Many species, however, have abrupt western range boundaries related to physiography and hydrogeomorphic processes. The western range limits for many trees correspond to Coastal Plain boundaries that at a regional scale impose sharper range boundaries than would be expected on the basis of decreasing precipitation. Also, riparian habitats within stream valleys extending westward from the Coastal Plain provide suitable habitats for trees in the dry regions of the Great Plains. The presence of riparian trees in this region is determined largely by the presence or absence of groundwater conditions necessary for survival. For floodplain trees, then, it is primarily habitat—not climate—that determines the location of range boundaries.     

Morphology of step-pools in a wilderness headwater stream: The importance of standardizing geomorphic measurements

The morphology of step-pools and cascades reflect the geological and climatic factors affecting channels in mountain watersheds. This study uses longitudinal and cross-section surveys to describe a headwater stream in the Boston Mountains of the Ozarks Plateau region in Arkansas and develop morphological relationships for comparisons with other regions. In the Bowers Hollow Creek watershed (3.5 km²), located within the boundaries of the Upper Buffalo Wilderness Area, step height and wavelength relationships are generally similar to those reported from other regions. Step-pool reaches were widely distributed in a discontinuous manner throughout the watershed. Average values of the sampled reaches are: reach slopes, 0.105 m/m; width, 6.10 m; crest particle sizes, 440 mm; step heights, 0.87 m; and step wavelengths, 6.62 m. The mean step steepness for the watershed was 0.13, whereas the mean length of a reach step to height ratio was 9:1. A comparison of morphological definitions found that the values of step height and steepness can vary by > 30% according to how step parameters are defined. Step height is particularly sensitive; thus, comparison of step height-based relationships from published data requires great care.     

内蒙中部地区不同生态区土地利用 格局分布特征

土地利用变化对全球变化和可持续发展有着深刻的影响,同时生态背景因素对土地利用变化也有着相应的反馈关系。采用单元匹配和空间叠加分析的方法,分析了内蒙古中部地区不同自然生态区土地利用空间分布格局特征。其结果表明：不同的生态因素对土地利用空间分布的约束状况不同,土地利用在数量结构和空间格局两个方面存在很强的地带性差异。     

长白山北坡苔原/岳桦景观边界的定量检测

景观边界是不同景观类型之间的过渡带,是生态系统与环境(包括地形和地貌等)相互作用的产物,运用地理信息系统和多变量分析方法(主成分分析PCA和移动窗口分析法MSWA)分别对样线数据和TM遥感影像数据进行分析,定量判定长白山北坡苔原和岳桦景观边界的宽度和位置。结果表明:长白山北坡苔原和岳桦景观边界的宽度为60m左右,这与野外样线调查的结果——该边界的宽度为50m相一致;研究结果表明:与地理信息系统和其它统计方法相结合,TM遥感影像数据可以用于森林景观边界的定量检测;在景观边界的检测方面,移动窗口法比主成分分析法更可靠;只要样线布设合理,主成分分析法也可以用于景观边界的定量检测。     

采点和去趋势方法对天山西部云杉上树线树轮宽度年表相关性及其气候信号的影响

针对新疆天山西部伊犁、博州三大山体北坡云杉上树线树木年轮资料,采用区域曲线、负指数曲线、样条函数三种不同生长去趋势方法,研制树轮宽度年表,分析不同采点和树轮去趋势方法对树轮宽度年表在不同频域的相关性及气候信号的影响发现：①采点间的距离和是否位于同一气候区是影响云杉上树线树轮宽度年表间相关性的首要因子。三个采点间的树轮宽度变化,在高频变化方面最为相似,低频变化存在着较大差异,表明它们在揭示和重建大范围的高频气候变化方面可能具有较大的应用潜力。②三种不同去趋势方法对天山西部山脉北坡上树线的云杉树轮宽度年表的研制具有一定影响,负指数和样条函数去趋势方法研制的树轮年表较为相似,而区域曲线去趋势方法研制的树轮宽度年表中则可保留较多的轮宽低频变化信息。③降水是天山西部云杉上树线的树轮宽度生长的主要限制因子,且树轮宽度生长对降水的响应具有显著的滞后性。④在天山西部的云杉上树线采点,使用区域曲线去趋势方法有利于在树轮宽度年表中保留较多的与水分有关的气候信息。     

A Predictive Geospatial Exploration Model for Mississippi Valley Type Pb–Zn Mineralization in the Southeast Missouri Lead District

The Pb–Zn sulfide concentrations hosted by dolomitized Cambrian carbonates in Southeast Missouri are world-class Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) deposits. These deposits commonly are in sites where local Precambrian basement highs resulted in depositional pinchouts of the basal Cambrian sandstones that served as a regional aquifer for basinal fluid migration driven by late Paleozoic Ouachita deformation. Mineralization also appears to be spatially related to regional faults that probably served as local fluid conduits. Understanding spatial associations between sites of known mineralization and regional geology, geochemistry, and geophysics in Southeast Missouri will be a useful guide in future exploration efforts in this region and for similar geologic settings globally. The weights-of-evidence method is used to evaluate regional geology, geochemistry, and geophysical datasets and produce favorability maps for MVT deposits in Southeast Missouri. Host rock characteristics, regional structural controls, stream sediment geochemistry, and proximity to basement highs appear to be the most useful data for predicting the location of the major deposits. This work illustrates the potential utility of mineral potential modeling to prioritize areas for exploration and identify permissive areas for undiscovered MVT mineralization.

     

Intensive field surveys in conservation planning: Priorities for cactus diversity in the Saltenian Calchaquíes Valleys (Argentina)

Cacti are a plant group of special conservation interest because of their economic value and the threats they face. In this paper, we studied cactus diversity in the Saltenian Calchaquíes Valleys, the most diverse region in Argentina. Our goals were: 1) to analyze diversity patterns, 2) to evaluate the effectiveness of the extant reserve network, 3) to select the complementary areas for cactus conservation, and 4) to evaluate the effectiveness of endemic cactus diversity as surrogate for all cactus diversity in this region. In our study, we recorded 41 cactus species, 22 of which were endemic. The most diverse cells of the survey grid were located in the High Monte ecoregion and in transition zones between this ecoregion and the Dry Chaco and Central Andean Puna ecoregions. Spatial congruence between species richness and endemism was high. The extant Saltenian Calchaquíes Valleys reserve network was effective for the cactus conservation because only three cells were necessary to maximize their protection with minimum representation. Endemic species had a good performance as surrogates of all cactus diversity. The present study is the first to define cactus diversity and to establish conservation strategies in this singular region.     

Stream Temperature Spatial Variability Reflects Geomorphology,Hydrology, and Microclimate: Navarro River Watershed,California

Stream temperatures are critical to coldwater fish and vary with microclimate, geomorphology, and hydrology, including influx of groundwater. Spatial variability of stream temperatures was examined at reach and watershed scales within the 816 km² Navarro River watershed in California. Field monitoring and numerical modeling illustrate that stream temperatures were highest at sites with high solar incidence (low shading and wide streams), long travel times, and low discharge. Microclimate helps explain deviation from the general pattern of streams warming with increasing drainage area. Reach-scale field observations of channel width and groundwater influx explain variation in stream temperatures not captured by watershed-scale models.     

Synoptic Classification of Snowfall Events in the Great Smoky Mountains,USA

Mean annual snowfall in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) exhibits considerable spatial variability, ranging from 30 cm in the valleys to 254 cm at higher elevations. Snowfall can be tied to a variety of synoptic classes (e.g., Miller A or B cyclones, 500 hPa cutoff lows), but the frequency and significance of different synoptic classes have not been fully assessed, particularly at higher elevations. In this paper, we manually classify all snowfall events during the period 1991 to 2004 according to a synoptic classification scheme, calculate mean annual snowfall by 850 hPa wind direction and synoptic class, and develop composite plots of various synoptic fields. Hourly observations from nearby first-order stations and 24 hr snowfall totals from five sites within the GSMNP are used to define snowfall events. NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data are used to develop composite plots of various synoptic fields for cyclones passing south and then east of the area (e.g., Miller A cyclones). Results indicate that over 50% of the mean annual snowfall at higher elevations occurs in association with low-level northwest flow, and that Miller A cyclones contribute the greatest amount to mean annual snowfall at all elevations.     

基于植被分区的秦岭年降水分区验证及其年际变化

通过旋转经验正交分解方法对秦岭年降水量进行分区,比较秦岭降水量客观分区与植被南北分界线的一致性,运用滑动t检验、累积距平和小波方法分析了各分区的气候变化特征。主要结论为：秦岭区域可以按年降水量分为4个区域,其中秦岭中段南北分区与植被分区界线相近,走向相同;秦岭各分区多年降水量一致表现为减少趋势,近57年来,各区大约减少了一成左右的降水量;秦岭区域年降水量在近57年里发生了多次转折,最明显的转折期发生在20世纪80年代,2001年前后秦岭区域降水出现了波动增加的趋势,但增加的趋势强度还比较弱,难以达到20世纪80年代的丰水顶峰时期;秦岭各分区最显著震荡周期2~4年。建议在开展气候区划和气候变化研究时,应该考虑年降水量分区与植被自然分区的一致性。     

THE FALL LINE: A PHYSIOGRAPHIC‐FOREST VEGETATION BOUNDARY*

ABSTRACT. The range boundaries for many tree species in the southeastern United States correspond to the Fall Line that separates the Coastal Plain from the Appalachian Highlands. Trees in the Coastal Plain with northern range boundaries corresponding to the Fall Line occur exclusively in alluvial valleys created by lateral channel migration. These species grow mostly on lower bottomland sites characterized by a high water table, soils that are often saturated, and low annual water fluctuation. In contrast to the Coastal Plain, the southern Appalachian Highlands are occupied mostly by bedrock streams that have few sites suitable for the regeneration of these species. The Fall Line is also an approximate southern boundary for trees common in the southern Appalachians that typically occur on either dry, rocky ridgetops or in narrow stream valleys, habitats that are uncommon on the relatively flat Coastal Plain. The ranges for many trees in eastern North America are controlled by large‐scale climatic patterns. Tree species with range boundaries corresponding to the Fall Line, however, are not approaching their physiological limits caused by progressively harsher climatic conditions or by competition. Instead, the Fall Line represents the approximate boundary of habitats suitable for regeneration.     

Prioritizing conservation potential of arid-land montane natural springs and associated riparian areas

Using inventory data and input from natural resource professionals, we developed a classification system that categorizes conservation potential for montane natural springs. This system contains 18 classes based on the presence of a riparian patch, wetland species, surface water, and evidence of human activity. We measured physical and biological components of 276 montane springs in the Oscura Mountains above 1450 m and the San Andres Mountains above 1300 m in southern New Mexico. Two of the 18 classes were not represented during the inventory, indicating the system applies to conditions beyond the montane springs in our study area. The class type observed most often (73 springs) had a riparian patch, perennial surface water, and human evidence. We assessed our system in relation to 13 other wetland and riparian classification systems regarding approach, area of applicability, intended users, validation, ease of use, and examination of system response. Our classification can be used to rapidly assess priority of conservation potential for isolated riparian sites, especially springs, in arid landscapes. We recommend (1) including this classification in conservation planning, (2) removing deleterious structures from high-priority sites, and (3) assessing efficiency and use of this classification scheme elsewhere.     

宁夏罗山油松(Pinus tabulaeformis)树轮宽度对气候因子的响应分析

 树轮样本采自宁夏罗山油松纯林的下限和上限。建立了下限和上限的树轮宽度标准化年表,分析了树轮宽度与降水、气温、湿润指数(P/T)的相关关系,结果显示,下限和上限树轮宽度指数都与当年3月、5月、春季以及年降水量显著正相关,与7月气温显著负相关;下限树轮宽度标准化年表与气候要素的相关系数一般大于上限的相关系数,而且下限树轮宽度与前一年9月、秋季降水以及夏季气温的相关也达到显著水平,表明下限树轮宽度标准化序列对降水和气温单一气候要素的变化较敏感;下限和上限的树轮宽度指数和湿润指数(P/T)呈正相关关系,而且上限树轮宽度和3—8月湿润指数的正相关达到99%的置信水平,说明罗山油松纯林上限树轮宽度标准化序列对水热组合的响应较敏感。     

Streamflow regulation and multi-level flood plain formation: channel narrowing on the aggrading Green River in the eastern Uinta Mountains, Colorado and Utah

The style and degree of channel narrowing in aggrading reaches downstream from large dams is dependent upon the dominant geomorphic processes of the affected river, the magnitude of streamflow regulation, and the post-dam sediment transport regime. We measured different magnitudes of channel adjustment on the Green River downstream from Flaming Gorge Dam, UT, USA, that are related to these three factors. Bankfull channel width decreased by an average of about 20% in the study area. In reaches with abundant debris fans and eddy deposited sand bars, the amount of channel narrowing was proportional to the decrease in specific stream power. The fan–eddy-dominated reach with the greatest decrease in stream power narrowed by 22% while the reach with the least decrease in stream power narrowed by 11%. In reaches with the same magnitude of peak flow reduction, meandering reaches narrowed by 15% to 22% and fan–eddy-dominated reaches narrowed by 11% to 12%. Specific stream power was not significantly affected by flow regulation in the meandering reaches.In the diverse array of reach characteristics and deposit types found in the study area, all pre- and post-dam deposits are part of a suite of topographic surfaces that includes a terrace that was inundated by rare pre-dam floods, an intermediate bench that was inundated by rare post-dam floods, and a post-dam floodplain that was inundated by the post-dam mean annual flood. Analysis of historical photographs and tree-ring dating of Tamarix sp. shows that the intermediate bench and post-dam floodplain are post-dam landforms in each reach type. Although these two surfaces occur at different levels, they are forming simultaneously during flows of different magnitude. And while the relative elevation and sedimentologic characteristics of the deposits differ between meandering reaches and reaches with abundant debris fans and eddies, both reach types contain deposits at all of these topographic levels.The process of channel narrowing varied between fan–eddy-dominated and meandering reaches. In the meandering reaches, where stream power has not changed, narrowing was accomplished by essentially the same depositional processes that operated prior to regulation. In fan–eddy-dominated reaches, where significant reductions in stream power have occurred, channel narrowing has been accompanied by a change in dominant depositional processes. Mid-channel sand deposits are aggrading on deposits that, in the pre-dam era, were active gravel bars. These deposits are creating new islands and decreasing the presence of open-framework gravel bars. In eddies, bare sand bars are replaced with vegetated bars that have a simpler topography than the pre-dam deposits.     

太湖流域水生态功能三级分区

水生态功能分区是进行流域现代水生态管理的必然要求,是面向水质目标管理控制单元划分的基础。针对太湖流域特征,提出了太湖流域水生态功能三级分区的目的和划分原则,在其指导下构建了太湖流域非太湖湖体区和太湖湖体区水生态功能三级分区指标体系;在GIS技术支撑下,分别以太湖流域非太湖湖体区1100多个和太湖湖体区3500多个水生态功能单元为基本空间统计单位,结合分区指标数据,制作了基于水生态功能单元的各项指标的空间分布图,采用二阶聚类法并结合人工辅助的方法将太湖流域划分为21个水生态功能三级区;分区水生态特征分析结果表明全流域各分区水生生物特征均具有较大的变异性,反映出流域内水生态的空间差异和不均匀性,体现了分区结果的合理性、科学性和可靠性。     

Heat Flow and Geothermal Potential in the South-Central United States

Geothermal exploration is typically limited to high-grade hydrothermal reservoirs that are usually found in the western United States, yet large areas with subsurface temperatures above 150°C at economic drilling depths can be found east of the Rocky Mountains. The object of this paper is to present new heat flow data and to evaluate the geothermal potential of Texas and adjacent areas. The new data show that, west of the Ouachita Thrust Belt, the heat flow values are lower than east of the fault zone. Basement heat flow values for the Palo Duro and Fort Worth Basins are below 50 mW/m² while, in the frontal zone of the belt, they can exceed 60 mW/m². Further east, along the Balcones fault system the heat flow is in general higher than 55 mW/m². The eastern most heat flow sites are in Louisiana and they show very high heat flow (over 80 mW/m²), which is associated with the apparently highly radioactive basement of the Sabine uplift. The geothermal resource in this area is large and diverse, and can be divided in high grade (temperature above 150°C) convective systems, conductive based enhanced geothermal systems and geothermal/geopressured systems. One of the most attractive areas east of the cordillera extends from eastern Texas across Louisiana and Arkansas to western Mississippi. Here temperatures reach exploitation range at depths below 4 km, and tapping such a resource from shut in hydrocarbon fields is relatively easy. The initial costs of the development can be greatly reduced if existing hydrocarbon infrastructure is used, and therefore using shut-in hydrocarbon fields for geothermal purposes should not be neglected.