REDISTRIBUTION AND MIXING OF SOIL GRAVELS BY TREE UPROOTING*

Gravel distributions within treethrow mounds and adjacent undisturbed soils in Wisconsin and Pennsylvania were examined to determine the pedoturbation effects of tree uprooting. Erosion of fine materials from the fresh root plate and subsequent treethrow mound leaves gravels as a lag deposit forming surface gravel armors. Continued slow erosion of remaining nongravelly materials diminishes topograhic expression of the mound. In time, gravel armors remain as the only evidence of past uprooting events.     

Badger (Taxidea taxus) disturbances increase soil heterogeneity in a degraded shrub-steppe ecosystem

In the western United States, overgrazing, weed invasion and wildfire have resulted in the conversion of shrub-steppe to annual grasslands, with substantial effects on ecosystem function. In these landscapes, badgers disturb large areas of soil while foraging for fossorial animals. Mounds created by badgers contained the lowest concentrations of total carbon, nitrogen and sulphur, mineral nitrogen and mineralizable nitrogen, inter-mound soils had the highest concentrations, and excavation pits had intermediate levels. Soil C:N ratio and pH were greater, and electrical conductivity and soluble Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and K⁺ were lower on mound soils compared with either pit or inter-mound soils. Larger pits generally trapped more litter, and increased litter mass equated with greater concentrations of active carbon, but only at the burned sites. Older mounds supported more vascular plants and cryptogamic crusts. Our results demonstrate reduced levels of nutrients and a higher C:N ratio on the mounds compared with either the pits or inter-mounds. Alteration to the homogeneous post-fire landscape by badgers contributes to patchiness in soils and vegetation, which is critical to the functioning of arid systems. Given their effect on soil C:N ratios, mounds may be important sites for recovery of indigenous shrub-steppe plant species.     

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES WITHIN A HILLSLOPE CAUSED BY A WINDTHROW EVENT IN THE TATRA MOUNTAINS,SOUTHERN POLAND

Tree uprooting plays an important role in hillslope evolution. The geomorphological impact of tree uprooting after a foehn wind occurrence, in December 2013 in the Tatra Mountains, was investigated. Geomorphological mapping was conducted in three watersheds. Additionally, in one of the watersheds, 459 windthrow pits were measured, in an area of 6.4 ha. The mean volume of a pit was 2.41 m³, and the mean surface area was 5.47 m². 3.9% of the area was affected by windthrow pits, however locally the magnitude of changes was significantly higher, reaching up to 14.5% of the surface area. Slope inclination weakly influenced the effects of uprooting, and a decrease in the average depth of pits on steep slopes was observed. Individual windthrow pits (five cases) initiated the activity of geomorphological processes, and two cases of periodic springs were noted. Changes in the relief of small landforms caused by tree uprooting were documented. Windthrow creation facilitated the delivery of the soil material from the slopes into the channels.     

PEDOGENESIS IN LATE PREHISTORIC INDIAN MOUNDS,UPPER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY

Inceptisols are developed on silt loam, loam, and sandy loam Indian mounds at the Keller Mound Group and Bluff Top Mound in northeastern Iowa. The mounds date to the Allamakee Phase of the Late Woodland Period (ca. 1650–1250 B.P.) and are built with fill obtained from the A, E, and upper B horizons of pre-existing soils (Alfisols). Differences in the morphologic and chemical characteristics of soils on different mounds are attributed to textural differences of the mounds' fill. Coarse-textured mound fill is pedogenically altered at a faster rate than fine-textured fill, but total carbon percentage of the A horizon attains a steady state faster in fine-textured mound fill. Total phosphorus content is used to determine from which horizons of pre-existing soils the specific layers of mound fill originated. Rates and pathways of pedogenesis in mound fill may not provide good analogues for the early stages of soil development in materials that have not undergone previous weathering and subsequent modification by humans. Nevertheless, mound soils are useful benchmarks for some pedologic studies since they provide time lines for evaluating minimum rates for development of argillic and albic horizons, as well as attainment of the Alfisol order.     

Mima-type mounds in southwest Missouri: Expressions of point-centered and locally thickened biomantles

Mima-type mounds, formed in gravelly soils of the Diamond Grove Prairie Natural Area near Joplin, Missouri, are the focus of this study. Emphasis is on the spatial and morphological aspects of the mounds, and more particularly on the analysis of mound soils and gravel distributions as a means for shedding light on mound origins in this region. The results strongly suggest that hierarchically dominant point-centered bioturbation by small vertebrates is the mode of mound genesis. Pocket gophers (Geomys bursarius), aided by other biota, create mounds as they burrow in residual gravelly soils that have evolved dense, relatively impermeable claypans that perch water during wet periods. Although pocket gophers do not presently inhabit the Diamond Grove area, evidence of past occupation, along with laboratory and field data, support them as the dominant role in forming the mounds. We conclude that these mounds are expressions of point-centered and locally thickened biomantles. Various subsidiary processes such as aeolian inputs, water erosion, and physical and chemical weathering also have genetically impacted Diamond Grove mounds.     

A groundwater vortex hypothesis for mima-like mounds, Laramie Basin, Wyoming

Mima-like mounds in the Laramie Basin occur where: (1) impervious bedrock (shale) is at a shallow depth (∼ 2–5 m); (2) bedrock is overlain by a thin veneer (∼ 1–4 m) of alluvial gravels; and (3) a strong argillic/calcic or petrocalcic soil caps the landform, typically a terrace. Active and inactive mounds contain churned materials, including pebbles derived from adjacent/subjacent units. The mounds are circular in plan view and lens- or funnel-shaped in cross-section. The strong intermound (premound) soil collapses beneath the mound, is entirely or partly destroyed at its base, or is truncated at the mound edge. Stratigraphic relationships on the youngest terrace of the Laramie River indicate that the inactive mounds are Holocene in age.Sodium concentrations (used as a tracer) in mound material and adjacent/subjacent units suggest that the mounds rotate counterclockwise. This movement may be driven by free spiral vortices (low hydraulic head) in confined (artesian) groundwater flow in alluvium between shallow bedrock and strong surface soil. The vortices (similar to water draining from a bathtub or a whirlpool in a river) may result from enlargements, constrictions, or changes in permeability of the aquifer — or meandering of groundwater flow. Groundwater, dissolved ions, and materials in suspension, or through friction and turbidity, then would move from adjacent high-hydraulic head areas into and down the vortex. In effect, the high head (intermound) areas would act as a pump whereas the vortex (which would form a mound) would act as a turbine — responding, therefore, to energy transformations between groundwater velocity and pressure according to the Bernoulli principle and Newton's Second Law of Motion. Soil or sediment, incapable of being fully moved into and down the vortex, would amass at the land surface as a circular mound that in cross-section would have a lens or funnel (turbine) shape. Computer modelling shows that mounds tend to form over deep bedrock and thick alluvium.The groundwater vortex hypothesis can account for the building of the mound higher at its center, the circular plan view and lens (or funnel) shape in cross-section, the inward spiral of sodium, the churned character of mound material, and the collapse (or truncation) of soils and other units beneath and along mound edges. The hypothesis, however, must not be applied to all other Mima or mima-like mounds, unless vortex motion can be determined and if stratigraphic similarities can be demonstrated.     

The Goodlett-Denny mound: a glimpse at 45 years of Pennsylvania treethrow mound evolution with implications for mass wasting

A rootplate/mound formed by the uprooting of a black cherry tree (Prunus serotina) in Potter County, Pennsylvania, was photographed in 1950 near the time of formation and again in 1952 and 1963 by J.C. Goodlett and C.S. Denny. The mound was located and photographed by the author in 1989 with the aid of background trees with identifying peculiarities and using the earlier consistent perspectives. Between 1950 and 1963 most of the rootmass had decomposed, leaving a mound with an estimated volume of 5.28 m³ in 1963. By 1989 the mound had lost 60% of its 1963 height and its volume had diminished to 2.09 m³. Mean annual erosion on the mound from 1989 to 1995 was much less than during the 1963–1989 period indicating a diminishing sediment contribution to the forest floor commensurate with lowering of the mound surface.     

Engineering rodents create key habitat for lizards

There is growing recognition among ecologists that ecosystem engineers play important roles in creating habitat for other species, but the comparative and combined effects of co-existing engineers are not well known. Here, we evaluated the separate and interactive effects of two burrowing rodents, Gunnison's prairie dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni) and banner-tailed kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spectabilis), on lizards in the Chihuahuan Desert grassland (USA). We found that the mounds and burrow systems of both rodent species provided important habitat for lizards, with lizard abundance being 2 to 4-fold higher on mounds than in adjacent areas without mounds. Kangaroo rat mounds supported greater numbers of lizards than prairie dog mounds, but the prairie dog colony with kangaroo rats supported 2-times more lizards than the landscape with only kangaroo rats. A greater number of mound habitats were available for lizards where prairie dogs and kangaroo rats co-occurred, and the rodents created unique structural mound types with different spatial distributions on the landscape. Our results demonstrate the importance of burrowing rodents in creating habitat for other animals, and that the combined effect of ecosystem engineers, especially those with large ecological roles, can be complementary and additive in areas where they co-occur.     

Effects of the abandonment of the burrowing mounds of fat sand rat (Psammomys obesus cretzschamar 1828) on vegetation and soil surface attributes along the coastal dunes of North Sinai,Egypt

Fat sand rats (Psammomys obesus) are strictly herbivorous and live in densely complex burrows in the desert of North Africa and the Middle East. Little is known however about the effect of their foraging and burrowing activities on surface morphology and plant community attributes. This study evaluated such effects by comparing burrow and mound surface morphology, canopy of the main host chenopod shrub Anabasis articulata, vegetation cover, and plant abundance and species richness on and off both active and abandoned colonies in the semi-stabilized sand dunes of the Northern Sinai. In general, active burrow systems were characterized by reduced A. articulata canopy area, and more soil disturbance, with higher and larger burrow mounds dominated by bare ground, dung, and dead and fresh litter. The abandonment of mounds for five years has resulted in significant increases of plant cover, canopy height, abundance and species richness. Vegetation structure and plant species assemblages differed between mound and non-mound patches of both active and abandoned sites. The results suggest that fat sand rats can have significant direct and indirect, short-term and long-term effects on vegetation dynamics and structure through their mound building and foraging.     

Episodic fluid flow as a trigger for Miocene‐Pliocene slope instability on the Utgard High,Norwegian Sea

Mass wasting is triggered on many continental slopes by a number of mechanisms, including seismic shaking, high sedimentation rates, the presence of weak geological units and gas hydrate dissociation. In this study, the morphology of a Late Miocene–Early Pliocene mass‐transport complex (MTC) on the Utgard High is unravelled and discussed in relation to possible trigger mechanisms. The approach used here includes 3D seismic interpretation and the analysis of variance attribute maps. The interpreted MTC is located on the crest and flanks of the Utgard High and is composed of three mass‐transport deposits with seismic characters varying from transparent and chaotic seismic facies at the base to slightly deformed layers composed of mounds and rafted blocks in the middle and chaotic to transparent reflections at the top. Lithologically, the MTC consists predominantly of claystone with high gamma ray and low density and resistivity values, demonstrating that the associated mounds represent remobilized ooze sediments. A vertical stack of six magmatic sills emplaced from 55.6 to 56.3 Ma into the Upper Cretaceous shales is interpreted at depths of 3,000–5,500 ms two‐way travel time (TWTT). In association with these magmatic sills are several hydrothermal vent complexes that interacted with the top MTC horizon, signifying that episodic and secondary fluid‐venting events might be the principal mechanism facilitating mass wasting in the study area. In addition, the remobilization of ooze sediments into mounds is hypothesized to be dependent on fluids and clayey layers. As a corollary of this work, the importance of relict and recurrent episodes of fluid flow in the Vøring Basin and their influence on the geotechnical integrity of the overburden and later mass wasting is established.     

乔木的斜向支撑效能及其坡面稳定意义

以滇中地区的松林为例,初步定量探讨了乔木对顺坡有的浅层土壤的斜向支撑作用。研究,树根可能提供的锚固力可达０．６９ｋＮ;在有效的锚固作用下,单株树干的支撑力（抗滑力）最高为０．４２ｋＮ,平均为０．１７ｋＮ;受斜向支撑作用的影响,本来不稳定的浅层松散物质的稳定性系数Ｆ值,由０．５４提高到１．１０,使坡面成为稳定斜坡。如果在特定条件下,树根的锚固力全部转化为支撑力,坡面的Ｆ值可以达到２．８２。     

黄土高原西部兰州市郊地貌驱动的土壤水分变化及对植物的影响分析

选择黄土高原造林的主要模式,即梯田、水平沟、鱼鳞坑和台地等,并按照阴阳坡向,栽植树种等的不同,采用中子水分仪每10 d测定土壤水分一次,对各种造林模式下土壤水分进行了长期的监测研究,研究结果表明：在春季植物萌发之前,无植物生长影响的情况下,土壤水分含量阴坡高于阳坡,南山与北山同坡向相比,南山的水分条件要好于北山;4月中旬以后,受植物生长消耗的影响,北山的水分含量大于南山,南山的水分波动则大于北山;鱼鳞坑、水平沟都具有一定的集水保水作用,但这种集水的作用与降水量的大小有关,水平沟由于面积较大,表面覆膜集水效果更好;阴坡梯田由外向内随着距离的增加,水分呈现逐渐增加的趋势,梯田内侧达到最大.     

Application of distance–decay models for inferences about termite mound-induced patterns in dryland ecosystems

Although termites have been widely reported to induce heterogeneity in soil resources, vegetation and patch use by herbivores, little effort has been made to examine spatial patterns around mounds. In this mini review we re-examine published studies on the variation in soil properties, herbage biomass and herbivore foraging with distance from termite mounds with reference to distance–decay models. The analyses revealed a significant decline in soil clay and silt, soil nutrients, herbage biomass, grazing and browsing with distance from termite mounds consistently with distance–decay models. This has both theoretical and practical significance to our understanding of processes and resource degradation in dryland ecosystems where termite mounds are common. From a sampling perspective, our analyses imply that measured variables around termite mounds are spatially structured. Therefore, we advocate geostatistical model-based sampling as a framework in future studies on termite mounds.     

Reinterpretation of the Original Dekalb Mounds in Illinois

The enigmatic DeKalb mounds in north-central Illinois, United States, are oval, inactive hillocks of Wisconsinan age. They have heights up to 5 m, lengths up to 1 km, and are composed either of till and lacustrine sediment with a thin cap of loess, or entirely of outwash. They are underlain by one till member within a large depression that is flanked by higher, elevated, morainic till members. Different origins have been proposed for the DeKalb mound field but the only previous in-depth study identified them as pingo remnants, presumably due to the degradation of significant ground ice and permafrost. However, the investigators who reported this viewed their own hypothesis as problematical. These problems can be resolved by correlating the relict Illinois landforms to relict glacial landforms that show similar morphologies and field relationships in Saskatchewan, Canada, and North Dakota, United States. In this study, the DeKalb mounds are presumed to have developed from an intricate set of glacial dead-ice and mass movement processes. This reinterpretation reflects a range of either discontinuous permafrost or negative permafrost within the paleoenvironment.     

黄土地区输油气管道工程环境风险分析与评价——以陕-甘天然气输气管道工程为例

以陕-甘天然气输气管道工程为例,根据黄土地区特征,经实地考察和有关资料分析,采用类比分析和事故树结构函数计算法,进行了黄土区输气管道工程环境风险因素识别和环境风险定性与定量分析;得出了不同区段环境风险指数和相对排序;提出了黄土区输气管道环境风险的管理措施与对策,为管道安全施工和运营提供了环境保护依据。     

科尔沁沙地流动沙丘掘穴蚁（Formica cunicularia）筑丘活动及其对土壤的作用

 以科尔沁沙地典型流动沙丘作为研究对象,通过调查不同坡度地形上掘穴蚁的蚁丘直径、密度和盖度分布,讨论了不同坡度地形对掘穴蚁筑丘活动的影响,并分析了掘穴蚁筑丘对不同坡度地形土壤的作用。结果表明,迎风坡和背风坡的坡底、坡中及丘顶对蚁丘直径、密度和盖度分布影响明显,其中蚁丘直径迎风坡坡中显著小于其他坡度地形（P<0.05）;密度和盖度分布顺序均表现为:丘顶>坡中>坡底。掘穴蚁筑丘改变了土壤性状,导致土壤含水量升高,pH值变小而电导率变大,有机质和全氮含量增加;微地貌条件下,蚁丘含水量和全氮含量迎风坡坡底较高,而蚁丘有机质含量背风坡坡底较高,但蚁丘土壤pH值和电导率丘顶较小。整个流动沙丘土壤基质均比较疏松,流动沙丘微环境易受风力作用而改变,从而影响掘穴蚁的筑丘活动分布,但不同坡度地形间蚁丘分布差异基本上均没有达到显著水平（P>0.05）。     

新疆和田河流域灌丛沙堆风洞流场的实验研究（Ⅰ）

灌丛沙堆是一种重要的风积地貌类型,风力、沙源、植物是影响灌丛沙堆发育的主要因素。依据风沙运动实验相似理论,以新疆和田河流域实测的灌丛沙堆数据为基础,按40∶1的比例缩小制作成无植被“灌丛沙堆”模型,在风洞中选用区间在6~14 m\5s-1的5组不同风速分别对沙堆模型作纯气流模拟实验流场观测,探讨在不同风力作用下灌丛沙堆表面的流场结构变化特征。模拟实验表明,气流在半球形沙堆迎风坡下部受到正面风压影响有较明显反射涡流,丘顶具有高速气流风蚀区域,而圆锥形沙堆迎风坡气流均匀爬坡加速,背风坡涡流强盛,因此两者在无沙情况下的纯气流流场结构特征、沙堆形态动力平衡特点有较明显差异。     

Landform Influences on Treeline Patchiness and Dynamics in a Changing Climate

Local landforms and microtopography control site conditions, spatial patterns, and dynamics in treeline landscapes. Several topography-related treeline types are presented and their responses to a warming climate discussed. On rugged mountain terrain, pronounced changes in vertical range and variety of treeline landscapes will not take place as long as debris slides and avalanches occur regularly. On intensively eroded steep terrain, trees will mainly colonize convexities. On trough shoulders and similar gentle topography with irregular mosaics of convex and concave landforms, tree establishment is most likely to take place on convex topography. On gentle slopes and rolling uplands, where the proportion of wind-swept terrain is comparatively large, microsite facilitation appears to be a precondition for tree establishment. At higher elevations, the relative importance of shelter-providing landforms will increase due to windier conditions. At the beginning of treeline rise, seedling establishment, growth, and survival are closely related to local landforms and microtopography and their effects on site conditions. Later, the feedback from trees on their environment may overrule the effects of landforms.