Revisiting William Morris Davis and Walther Penck to Propose a General Model of Slope ‘Evolution’ in Deserts

Based on research from slopes on rhyolite domes of known age formed over a million‐year continuum in eastern California, a classic geomorphic debate is reconsidered and a general model of desert slope development proposed. This study examines steep (～25° to ～35°) boulder‐dominated slopes that include well, varnished, vertically oriented colluvial deposits. Such deposits are common throughout the arid southwestern United States. Basic field and isotopic dating methods are combined with two surface‐dating techniques, cosmogenic chlorine‐36 and rock varnish microlaminae, to produce a detailed slope development history with broad implications for geomorphic theory that includes the unresolved geomorphic debate between Walther Penck and William Morris Davis. Slopes in this study are dominated by the on‐going desert slope processes of debris flows and in‐situ grain disintegration as evidenced by active debris flow features, terminal Pleistocene ages of microlaminae, and chlorine‐36 ages progressively younger than potassium‐argon ages for slope genesis. Results also indicate that slopes retreat in a parallel fashion as postulated by Penck. Furthermore, the deposits do not exhibit significant changes in grain size, shape, or angularity from genesis to ～0.6 Ma but change markedly after that time possibly indicating a geomorphic threshold between ～0.6 and ～1 Ma, or episodic erosional events throughout the mid to late Pleistocene.     

Cosmogenic He exposure ages of Pleistocene debris flows and desert pavements in Capitol Reef National Park, Utah

The Quaternary history of the Capitol Reef area, Utah, is closely linked to the basaltic-andesite boulder deposits that cover much of the landscape. Understanding the age and mode of emplacement of these deposits is crucial to deciphering the Quaternary evolution of this part of the Colorado Plateau. Using cosmogenic ³He exposure age dating, we obtained apparent exposure ages for several key deposits in the Capitol Reef area. Coarse boulder diamicts capping the Johnson Mesa and Carcass Creek Terraces are not associated with the Bull Lake glaciation as previously thought, but were deposited 180±15 to 205±17 ka (minimum age) and are the result of debris flow deposition. Desert pavements on the Johnson Mesa surface give exposure ranging from 97±8 to 159±14 ka and are 34–96 kyears younger than the boulder exposure ages. The offset between the boulder and pavement exposure ages appears to be related to a delay in pavement formation until the penultimate glacial/interglacial transition or periodic burial and exposure of pavement clasts since debris flow deposition. Incision rates for the Capitol Reef reach of the Fremont River calculated from the boulder exposure ages range from 0.40 to 0.43 m kyear⁻¹ (maximum rates) and are some of the highest on the Colorado Plateau.     

苍山十八溪的水石流及其防治

云南省苍山十八溪发育十分典型的水石流,流动时表面为高含沙洪水,底部为粗相沙砾和巨石,固液两相离析为非均质两相流。流体具有很大的动能和冲击力,对富绕的苍洱平坝区造成危害。为了治灾除害,保护生态环境,本文对防治目的、治理目标、防治方针与方法,以及实施顺序、程序、方案、技术措施等问题作了阐述。     

中国东部山地泥石流发育的第四纪环境背景及减灾对策

根据中国东部山地古泥石流沉积记录 ,推断在地形条件具备的前提下 ,泥石流形成经过了冰 (缘 )期气候作用下的物质积累和间冰 (缘 )期气候作用下的水动力作用过程 ,二者在时间上具有差异性。按照晚第四纪以来物质与水动力条件的空间波动范围 ,可将中国东部泥石流的形成划分为 3个区 ,北部主要受控于季风降水 ,中部主要受控于物质积累 ,而南部则只与地形切割等因素联系密切。据此提出相应的减灾对策。     

中国盐湖沉积年代学研究进展

盐湖沉积记录了区域气候和水文变化,是重要的古气候研究对象。年代学是盐湖古气候研究最重要的一项内容,是后续工作的基础。盐湖沉积最常用的定年方法有14C定年、铀系定年、光释光(OSL)定年、古地磁定年。受各种定年方法自身局限性以及盐湖沉积特殊性的制约,存在不同方法测出的年龄差异较大的现象。准确测定盐湖沉积的年代还较为困难,一定程度限制了盐湖古气候研究的发展。最新研究表明,由于盐湖沉积有机质含量低,易受现代碳的污染,14C测年中存在复杂的碳库效应,其14C年代老于30 cal ka BP时,测出的年龄可能被低估,需谨慎对待。未来需要加强铀系定年和光释光定年等方法在盐湖沉积中的基础研究,并开发新的更好的测年方法,提高盐湖沉积测年的准确度,为深入开展盐湖古气候变化及成盐成矿规律研究提供坚实基础。     

沉积物ESR测年及在川西-滇北河流阶地定年中的应用

ESR能够直接测定第四纪碎屑沉积物年代,尤其是对老于距今20万年以上的沉积物而被广泛应用,但其不很高的测年精度及可重复性不高又限制了其应用的广泛性。野外样品采集及室内分析测试的各个环节都会对ESR测年精度产生影响,因此控制这些环节造成的各种误差是提高ESR测年精度的关键。川西-滇北地区部分河流阶地沉积物ESR年代测定结果与地层层序以及区域地质构造事件基本吻合,表明ESR法测定该区河流阶地沉积物的年代是可行的。在野外采样以及实验室内样品处理测试过程中,采取合理的措施,可以把ESR测年的误差控制在10％～15％的范围内,基本能够满足研究的需要。     

中国盐湖沉积年代学研究进展

盐湖沉积记录了区域的气候和水文变化,是重要的古气候研究对象。年代学是盐湖古气候研究最重要的一项内容,是后续几乎所有工作的基础。盐湖沉积最常用的定年方法有₁₄C定年、铀系定年、光释光(OSL)定年、古地磁定年。受各种定年方法自身的局限性以及盐湖沉积特有的沉积特征,存在不同方法测出的年龄差异较大的现象。准确测定盐湖沉积的年代还较为困难,一定程度制约了盐湖古气候研究的发展。由于盐湖沉积有机质含量低,易受现代碳的污染,其₁₄C年代老于30 cal ka BP时,测出的年龄可能已饱和,需要谨慎对待。未来需要加强铀系定年和光释光定年等方法在盐湖沉积中的基础研究,并开发新的更好的测年方法,提高盐湖沉积测年的准确度,为深入开展盐湖古气候变化及成盐成矿规律研究提供坚实基础。     

闽粤沿海老红砂的热释光测年

采用再生热释光法对来自福建和广东沿海地区的39个老红砂样品进行了测年,其年龄约在0.9~6.8万年之间,表明闽粤沿海的老红砂是晚更新世中、晚期形成的风成沉积。     

The environmental significance of the remobilisation of ancient mass movements in the Atbara–Tekeze headwaters, Northern Ethiopia

Old landslides are prominent features in the landscape around Hagere Selam, Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia. The available evidence suggests their Late Pleistocene to Middle Holocene age and conditions of soil humidity. The affected geological layers, often silicified lacustrine deposits prone to sliding, rest upon or above the water holding Amba Aradam sandstone aquifer.Three examples of present-day (remobilisation of old) mass movements are illustrated and discussed. The aims of the study were to unravel the environmental conditions of the present-day remobilisation of ancient flows, as well as those of first-time landslides. The first two mass movements discussed are slumps, located in areas with vigorous regeneration of (grassy) vegetation. Their activation is thought to be the consequence of an increase in infiltration capacity of the soils under regenerating vegetation. One of these slumps had a horizontal movement of the order of 10–20 m in 1 day.The other case is the remobilisation of the May Ntebteb debris flow below the Amba Aradam sandstone cliff. The debris flow presently creeps downslope at a rate of 3–6 cm year⁻¹. Palynological evidence from tufa shows that the reactivation of the flow started 70 years ago. Shear resistance measurements indicate the danger for continuous or prefailure creep. From the soil mechanics point of view, the reactivation of the debris flow is due to the combination of two factors: (1) the reduction of flow confining pressures as a result of gully incision over the last hundred years, and (2) the increase of seepage pressure as a consequence of the cumulative effect of this incision and the increase in infiltration rates on the lobe since grazing and woodcutting have been prohibited 8 years ago. The role of such exclosures as possible landslide triggers is discussed.From the geomorphological point of view, the ancient movements and their present-day reactivation cannot be compared: the ancient movements led to the development of debris flows, whereas the reactivations relate to the dissection of these mass movement deposits.     

良好植被区泥石流防治初探

通过对近年来发生在良好植被区的几次重大泥石流、滑坡灾害的考察,发现植被在泥石流、滑坡形成中的作用有待于进一步认识。通过分析,当中小强度降雨激发下,植被能够削减泥石流、滑坡灾害的规模,甚至抑制泥石流、滑坡灾害的发生;当降雨超过一定阀值后,在水作用下,植被不但不能削减灾害规模,反而增大灾害的规模。在这类地区,简单地使用一般的防治措施,已经不能满足防灾、减灾的需要,客观要求针对这些地区泥石流灾害的形成原因、危害特征,研究防治对策。经初步研究提出3点防治措施:1)加强泥石流滑坡灾害的预测预报工作;2)在重点区域设置自动雨量记录报警装置;3)特别针对漂木拦挡,采取新型结构减轻泥石流的危害。     

中国泥石流形成环境剖析

丰富的松散固体物质、充沛的水源和陡峻的地形,作为泥石流形成的三个基本条件,已得到学者们的认同。就本质而言,这三者可归纳为能量和物质两大因素。本文从中国泥石流区域分布着眼,从不同尺度的自然环境因素和人为活动,探讨中国泥石流形成发展的基本规律。研究结果表明,大尺度的区域地质背景、大地貌单元和犬气候系统是控制泥石流形成发育的主导因素;不稳定斜坡因子、小尺度水文气象因子、流域形态因子、森林植被因子等,在大尺度因素的基础上,对泥石流的形成有重要影响;历史上,特别是近期人类经济活动对环境的不良影响,加剧了泥石流的发展。泥石流灾害非单一因子所致,而是诸多因子综合作用的结果,是山地环境退化的产物。泥石流活动具有开放性、内外营力作用的共同性以及自然因素和人为因素的复合性这三大特点。     

Holocene debris-flow deposits and their implications on the climate in the upper Jinsha River valley, China

Major debris-flow deposits occur along the xerothermic valley of the upper Jinsha River. The debris-flow deposits, ranging in thickness from 1 to 20 m, invariably occupy gently inclined piedmont slopes. The sediments are presently deeply dissected by gullies, and the process of mass movement has almost ceased. Detailed textural, stratigraphical, and geochemical studies reveal the formation processes of the debris flows. Seven debris-flow incidents are noted based on the unit combination characteristics of debris-flow deposits. The age estimates of optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) show that the occurrence of debris flows started at around 10.6 kyr BP and weakened until 4.5 kyr BP, corresponding to the obvious strengthened phase of the summer monsoons in the region. The ages of the debris-flow deposits indicate that the occurrence of a mass of debris flows was a response to the intensified summer monsoon in the SE fringe of the Tibetan Plateau since the early Holocene.     

CHANGES IN DEPOSITION ON A COLLUVIAL FAN DURING THE UPPER HOLOCENE IN THE TINDASTÓLL MOUNTAIN, SKAGAFJÖRÐUR DISTRICT, NORTH ICELAND: PRELIMINARY RESULTS

This study investigates variability in depositional processes and landforms on the Innstaland colluvial fan, northern Iceland, over the late Holocene. This is completed using geomorphological mapping, historical records and relative‐age dating tools (vegetation survey, rock hardness and tephrochronology). Debris flows are the main contributors to fan development. Six main phases of deposition are distinguished, varying in deposit magnitude along a general trend of decreasing magnitude over time. With the help of dated tephra layers, the aggradation rates of the fan are calculated for the upper Holocene and in particular over the historical period (post‐ AD 1104). An episodic sediment transfer system is reconstructed, with several phases of low activity between more rapid aggradational episodes. The interpretation of the colluvial deposits suggests that the main phase of aggradation on the fan ended during the historical period after which incision started (between AD 1300 and 1766). Incision tracks act as the main pathways for debris distribution at the present time. These variations are related to the changing response of the catchment system over time.     

Contrasting rainfall generated debris flows from adjacent watersheds at Forest Falls, southern California, USA

Debris flows are widespread and common in many steeply sloping areas of southern California. The San Bernardino Mountains community of Forest Falls is probably subject to the most frequently documented debris flows in southern California. Debris flows at Forest Falls are generated during short-duration high-intensity rains that mobilize surface material. Except for debris flows on two consecutive days in November 1965, all the documented historic debris flows have occurred during high-intensity summer rainfall, locally referred to as ‘monsoon’ or ‘cloudburst’ rains. Velocities of the moving debris range from about 5 km/h to about 90 km/h. Velocity of a moving flow appears to be essentially a function of the water content of the flow. Low velocity debris flows are characterized by steep snouts that, when stopped, have only small amounts of water draining from the flow. In marked contrast are high-velocity debris flows whose deposits more resemble fluvial deposits. In the Forest Falls area two adjacent drainage basins, Snow Creek and Rattlesnake Creek, have considerably different histories of debris flows. Snow Creek basin, with an area about three times as large as Rattlesnake Creek basin, has a well developed debris flow channel with broad levees. Most of the debris flows in Snow Creek have greater water content and attain higher velocities than those of Rattlesnake Creek. Most debris flows are in relative equilibrium with the geometry of the channel morphology. Exceptionally high-velocity flows, however, overshoot the channel walls at particularly tight channel curves. After overshooting the channel, the flows degrade the adjacent levee surface and remove trees and structures in the immediate path, before spreading out with decreasing velocity. As the velocity decreases the clasts in the debris flows pulverize the up-slope side of the trees and often imbed clasts in them. Debris flows in Rattlesnake Creek are relatively slow moving and commonly stop in the channel. After the channel is blocked, subsequent debris flows cut a new channel upstream from the blockage that results in the deposition of new debris-flow deposits on the lower part of the fan. Shifting the location of debris flows on the Rattlesnake Creek fan tends to prevent trees from becoming mature. Dense growths of conifer seedlings sprout in the spring on the late summer debris flow deposits. This repeated process results in stands of even-aged trees whose age records the age of the debris flows.     

坡面泥石流发生的坡度阀值研究

对重庆市北碚区的21个坡面泥石流的实地调查表明,坡度对坡面泥石流发生具有重要的控制性作用。在对坡面泥石流流域大量原始坡度进行统计分析后发现,各坡面泥石流的坡度服从正态分布规律。根据这一分布规律,将本区坡面泥石流发生的坡度阀值确定为三类。文章从定量的角度阐述了坡度阀值与坡面泥石流发生的关系,为生态脆弱区的划分、工程建设、防灾减灾和政府决策提供服务。     

The rock-avalanche of February 1995 at Claix (French Alps)

The sedimentology of a rock-avalanche involving ca. 7·10³ m³, that happened on February 1995 at Claix, the French Alps, is analysed here. The talus shows a proximal depression due to the impact of the debris, then a grooved area with few, mainly sandy silt deposits and a downslope accumulation of coarse debris that reaches up to 3 m in thickness. The material underwent mass movement as demonstrated by the steep distal front, the strong fabric strength and the thrust planes. The greatest part of the deposits consists of a clast-supported to partially openwork debris with angular clasts over a sheared matrix-supported basal layer. The largest blocks, often more than 1 m in length, are concentrated at the surface and the front. The overall sedimentological characteristics are similar to those of the small dry grain flows that occur usually on rockfall talus, except for the abundance of fine-grained particles that results from intense cataclasis during flow. It is suggested that the deposits of such medium-scale rock-avalanches, probably not uncommon in seismic regions, may have been confused in previous studies with other slope mechanisms such as debris flow and rockfall.     

中国2004年泥石流灾害特点及其对减灾的启示

分析了我国2004年成灾特点,大陆首次出现大规模的大风泥石流,在植被较好的地区仍然有泥石流发生,年内同一地区多次成灾增大了灾害损失,建筑选址不当是造成人员死亡的一个重要原因,低频性泥石流常造成严重灾害.受上述成灾特点的启示,提出在进行潜在泥石流判识时要慎重对待植被较好的区域,注重对低频泥石流的防范,在建筑物选址时应注意潜在泥石流危害,加强重大工程建设区泥石流灾害的预警,建立群测群防体系,进行监测预警,制定临灾预案,发展灾害保险业务以分担灾害风险等减灾对策.     

Insights into alpine moraine development from cosmogenic 36Cl buildup dating

We have used cosmogenic ³⁶Cl surface exposure dating to determine apparent construction ages of late Pleistocene moraines in the Sierra Nevada, the White Mountains, and the Wind River Range, all in the western United States. The inferred glacial chronologies from the various localities all exhibit certain characteristics: (1) Local records are fragmentary and deposits of some glacial advances are always missing; no location has deposits of all glaciations and no glacial advance is recorded at all locations. This is due either to unfavorable conditions for glacier development at some times or to obliteration of earlier deposits by later, more extensive glaciers. (2) Most moraines have young apparent exposure ages, with only a few older than the last glacial cycle. This may be due to young true ages of these deposits, erosion of moraine surfaces, or obliterative overlap and covering of older deposits by younger ones. (3) Many deposits that were previously correlated (e.g., based on their stratigraphic positions) are not correlative; they may represent different stades and, sometimes, even different glaciations. Similarly, some previously uncorrelated deposits have the same exposure ages and may be correlative. (4) Clusters of several distinct moraines of nearly the same age are present at most locations. These clusters suggest that alpine moraines are formed during short deposition episodes that last between several hundred and several thousand years.     

Buried glacier ice in southern Iceland and its wider significance

Geo-electrical resistivity surveys have been carried out at recently deglaciated sites in front of three glaciers in southern Iceland: Skeiðarájökull, Hrútárjökull, and Virkisjökull. The results show the presence of old glacier ice beneath debris mantles of various thickness. We conclude that buried glacier ice has survived for at least 50 years at Virkisjökull and Hrútárjökull, and probably for over 200 years at Skeiðarájökull. Additional data from a further site have identified a discontinuous ice core within 18th-century jökulhlaup deposits. Photographic and lichenometric evidence show that the overlying debris has been relatively stable, and hence melting of the ice at all four sites is proceeding slowly due to the heat-shielding properties of the overburden. The geomorphic implications are pertinent when considering the potential longevity of buried ice. The possible implications for dating techniques, such as lichenometry, radiocarbon dating and cosmogenic surface-exposure dating are also important, as long-term readjustments of surface forms may lead to dating inaccuracy. Finally, it is recognised that landscape development in areas of stagnant ice topography may post-date initial deglaciation by a considerable degree.     

坡度阀值与坡面泥石流--以重庆市北碚区为例

通过对重庆市北碚区的 2 1个坡面泥石流的实地调查表明 ,坡度对坡面泥石流发生具有重要控制性作用。在对坡面泥石流流域大量原始坡度进行统计分析后发现 ,各坡面泥石流的坡度分布具有明显的正态分布特征 ,且平均坡度分布具有显著的规律。根据这一分布规律 ,将本区坡面泥石流发生的坡度阀值确定为三类 :第一类的坡面泥石流植被覆盖率高 ,远离居民区 ,人类影响活动微弱 ,坡度阀值为 32 4° ;第二类坡面泥石流无一例外均位于林地结合部 ,森林覆盖率很低 ,人类活动影响十分剧烈 ,坡度阀值为 2 7 3° ;第三类的两条坡面泥石流相邻 ,均位于观音峡峡谷地带 ,它们的发生完全受地形条件的控制 ,坡度阀值为 36 8°。本文从定量的角度阐述了坡度阀值与坡面泥石流发生的关系 ,为生态脆弱区的划分、工程建设、防灾减灾和政府决策提供服务