Surface features associated with transform faults: A comparison between observed examples and an experimental model

In several tectonic provinces where active ridge segments are offset, transform faults are expected but not observed. This paper discusses the evolution of the surface expression of some transform faults with the help of a few geological examples and a simple experimental clay model in which the importance of en-échelon fault systems is assessed. We conclude that the azimuth of observed fault traces may not coincide with the direction of movement, but be oblique to it. Thus we must be cautious when using a fieldobserved fault direction to infer a transform-fault direction for use in plate-tectonics models. This study also suggests the scale at which the assumption of rigid plates fails.     

糜棱岩化过程中细粒白云母多型与结晶度的演变——以郯庐断裂带南段为例

郯庐断裂带南段韧性剪切带出现在大别山东缘与张八岭隆起高压变质带之上。根据韧性剪切带糜棱岩中同构造矿物组合、黑云母的存在以及长石的变形行为,推测其变形-变质温度为400-450℃。b_0值分析表明,这些糜棱岩是在低压环境下形成的。对一系列糜棱岩样品的XRD分析显示,糜棱岩中同构造细粒白云母的多型类型皆为1M 2M_1型,指示即使在400℃以上环境下1M型仍没有消失。糜棱岩化过程中不断新生的细粒白云母初始时刻为1M型,接着发生向2M、型的转变。由于新生细粒白云母的不断产生,即使在较高温度环境下形成的糜棱岩仍含有1M型。所分析糜棱岩结晶度Kubler指数介于0.23～0.42°△2θ,多属于近变带范畴,显示其结晶程度差于实际所经历的温度。本文所测定的细粒白云母结晶度值与粒径成反比,由于糜棱岩化中细粒白云母不断的新生与结晶生长常不充分,实测的结晶度是不同时刻形成的、具不同结晶度的细粒白云母的混合结晶度。糜棱岩化过程中时间短、富流体活动、新生矿物不断发生等特性,使其中细粒白云母多型与结晶度的演变规律不同于沉积岩的甚低级变质。     

Constraining performance assessment models with tracer test results: a comparison between two conceptual models

Tracer tests are conducted to ascertain solute transport parameters of a single rock feature over a 5-m transport pathway. Two different conceptualizations of double-porosity solute transport provide estimates of the tracer breakthrough curves. One of the conceptualizations (single-rate) employs a single effective diffusion coefficient in a matrix with infinite penetration depth. However, the tracer retention between different flow paths can vary as the ratio of flow-wetted surface to flow rate differs between the path lines. The other conceptualization (multirate) employs a continuous distribution of multiple diffusion rate coefficients in a matrix with variable, yet finite, capacity. Application of these two models with the parameters estimated on the tracer test breakthrough curves produces transport results that differ by orders of magnitude in peak concentration and time to peak concentration at the performance assessment (PA) time and length scales (100,000 years and 1,000 m). These differences are examined by calculating the time limits for the diffusive capacity to act as an infinite medium. These limits are compared across both conceptual models and also against characteristic times for diffusion at both the tracer test and PA scales. Additionally, the differences between the models are examined by re-estimating parameters for the multirate model from the traditional double-porosity model results at the PA scale. Results indicate that for each model the amount of the diffusive capacity that acts as an infinite medium over the specified time scale explains the differences between the model results and that tracer tests alone cannot provide reliable estimates of transport parameters for the PA scale. Results of Monte Carlo runs of the transport models with varying travel times and path lengths show consistent results between models and suggest that the variation in flow-wetted surface to flow rate along path lines is insignificant relative to variability in the amount of diffusive capacity that can be accessed along the transport pathway.

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Resumen Delimitando la eficacia de modelos de evaluación con resultados de pruebas de trazadores: una comparación entre dos modelos conceptuales.Se llevaron a cabo pruebas de trazadores para evaluar los parámetros de transporte de solutos en un rasgo rocoso a lo largo de una trayectoria de transporte de 5 m. Dos diferentes conceptualizaciones del transporte de solutos de porosidad doble aportan estimados de las curvas de avance de trazadores. Una de las conceptualizaciones (ritmo único) utiliza un coeficiente de difusión efectiva único en una matriz con profundidad de penetración infinita. Sin embargo, la retención del trazador entre diferentes trayectorias de flujo puede variar debido a que la relación entre la superficie mojada de flujo y el ritmo de flujo difiere entre las líneas de trayectoria. La otra conceptualización (multi-ritmo) utiliza una distribución continua de coeficientes de ritmos de difusión múltiple en una matriz con capacidad variable pero finita. La aplicación de los dos modelos con los parámetros estimados en base a las curvas de avance de trazadores producen resultados de transporte que difieren en varios órdenes de magnitud, tanto en concentración pico como en el tiempo en que se alcanza la concentración pico, en las escalas de evaluación de eficacia (PA) de tiempo y longitud (100,000 años y 1,000 m). Estas diferencias se examinan mediante el cálculo de límites de tiempo en que se considera que la capacidad difusiva actúa como un medio infinito. Estos límites se comparan en ambos modelos conceptuales y contra los tiempos característicos para difusión en escalas de PA y de prueba de trazador. Adicionalmente, se examinan las diferencias entre los modelos calculando de nuevo los parámetros para el modelo multi-ritmo a partir del modelo tradicional de doble porosidad a escala PA. Los resultados indican que para cada modelo la cantidad de la capacidad difusiva que actúa como un medio infinito sobre la escala de tiempo especificada explica las diferencias entre los resultados del modelo y que las pruebas de trazadores por sí solas no aportan cálculos confiables de los parámetros de transporte para la escala PA. Los resultados provenientes de corridas Monte Carlo de los modelos de transporte con distintos tiempos de viaje y diferentes longitudes de trayectorias muestran resultados consistentes entre modelos y sugieren que la variación en la relación de superficie de flujo mojada a ritmo de flujo a lo largo de las líneas de trayectoria es insignificante en relación con la variabilidad en la cantidad de capacidad difusiva que puede alcanzarse a lo largo de la trayectoria de transporte.

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Résumé Contraindre le bilan des performances des modèles avec les résultats de traçages: une comparaison entre deux modèles conceptuels.Des tests de traçage sont mis en oeuvre pour étudier les paramètres de transport de soluté dune roche sur une longueur de 5 m. Deux différents modèles de transport de soluté dans un milieu à double porosité fournissent des estimation des courbes de restitution. Lune des conceptualisations (unique taux de restitution) emploie un seul coefficient effectif de diffusion dans une matrice possédant une pénétration infinie en profondeur. Par ailleurs, la rétention du traceur entre les différentes lignes découlement peut varier comme le rapport des débits aux surfaces mouillées et comme le rapport de la différence de débits entres les lignes découlement. Lautre conceptualisation (taux multiple) emploie une distribution continue de coefficients de diffusion dans une matrice à capacité variable et finit. Lapplication de ces deux modèles avec les pa! ramètres estimés grâce aux courbes de restitution produit des résultats de transport qui différent de plusieurs ordres de grandeur dans la magnitude du pic, le temps du pic de concentration, au bilan des performances (PA) et aux échelles de distance (100,000 ans et 1,000 m). Ces différences sont éxaminées par lintermédiaire des temps limites pour que la capacité diffusive équivaille à un milieu infini. Ces limites sont comparées à travers les modèles conceptuels ainsi que les temps caractéristiques de diffusion à léchelle du test de traçage et à léchelle du PA. Par ailleurs, les différences entre les modèles sont éxaminées en réestimant les paramètres pour le modèle à taux multiple à partir des résultats du modèle à double porosité à léchelle du PA. Les résultats indiquent que pour chaque modèle la valeur de la capacité diffusive dans un milieu infini sur une période de temps spécifiée explique les différences entre les modèles et le ! fait que le test de traçage seul ne permet pas de déterminer les paramètres de transport à léchelle du PA. Les résultats des simulations Monte Carlo du modèle de transport avec des temps et des distances de transport variables montrent des résultats concordances entre les différents modèles et suggère que la variation que la variation entre surface mouillée et le rapport de la différence de débits entre les lignes découlement est insignifiante, en regard de la variabilité du montant de la capacité diffusive qui peut être accessible le long de la ligne de transport.

     

Synthesis of experimental models for molecular inorganic geochemistry—A review with examples

We are observing an sharp evolution within low-temperature geochemistry away from thermodynamics and deep geologic time toward molecular processes, particularly those at mineral or bacterial surfaces, and disequilibria. This evolution has led to a new cooperation between Earth scientists and inorganic chemists who synthesize aqueous metal-(hydr)oxide clusters as models for enzyme centers and hydrolytic products. If geochemists too can embrace these methods, we can create experimental models to answer some of the key questions posed about minerals and their reactions with aqueous solutions. In this paper we lay out the areas where there is overlap in these two fields using particular examples and emphasize how skills from each subdiscipline can benefit the whole.The central point is that this the fusion is extraordinarily healthy to both fields, as inorganic chemistry expands to embrace natural processes and as geochemists embrace methods of molecular synthesis and new useful, yet unnatural materials, that have traditionally been considered exotic. The motivation for this cooperation is the emphasis on reaction mechanisms between surface functional groups on minerals, or cells, in water. By mechanisms is meant the key atoms and molecular motions that cause the reaction to occur. For aqueous reactions, the key variables are: the number and character of inner-sphere ligands and metals; the Brønsted acidity of key atoms in cleavable bonds and the accessibility of the key atoms to solutes. These variables can be studied systematically in experimental clusters and coupled directly to advances in simulation.     

Water table characterization for environmental hydrogeologic monitoring in fault zones: examples from California, potential applications in Chile

Potentially contaminating activities such as mining and waste disposal, which require environmental hydrogeologic monitoring, may be located in or above fault zones. Two case studies of ground water monitoring at waste disposal sites in California illustrate the effect such fault zones may have on water tables. A fault gouge area in the Garlock fault zone has a potentiometric surface (a conceptual surface plotted using water elevations in monitoring wells and springs) which intersects the ground surface. The planar Kern Bluff fault produces a stepped water tabel. It is suggested that due to geologic and other environmental similarities, studies of environmental impacts of projects along the Ataca fault zone and Pocuro fault zone in Chile may encounter similar hydrogeologic phenomena.     

A comparison of natural and experimental strain patterns around fold hinge zones

Patterns of finite strain around fold hinges in incompetent layers in buckled interlayered materials have been investigated in a series of experimental tests conducted with a view to comparing the results with a recently described anomalous slaty cleavage pattern from northern Norway. As well as compressing rubber, putty and plasticene models, a photoelastic strain analysis of buckled rubber strips in gelatine has been carried out. Strain patterns from the various tests are strikingly similar to the natural cleavage patterns, and a discussion of the factors favouring their development is presented.     

Morphostructural and tectonophysical features of strike-slip and extensional fault zones (results of analog modeling)

The formation of the relief of fault zones is considered in relation to the evolution of their internal structure during faulting. The study was carried out by analog modeling with subsequent digital elevation modeling of the experimental surface of the deformed sample. The vertical displacement gradient was calculated based on the digital elevation models. It has been found that the relief of strike-slip and extensional fault zones depends on their internal structure. Each element of the internal structure makes its own contribution to the relief formation. The process depends on experimental conditions, such as the viscosity of the model material and the model deformation rate. The relief of the fault zone is different at each of three main stages of its formation.     

Fabric development in shear zones: theoretical controls and observed phenomena

It is suggested that the kinematic framework controls the orientation of crystallographic fabrics developed in plastically deformed quartzites. Important directions in this framework are those of the instantaneous stretching axes, and the flow plane and flow direction if these can be uniquely defined. Rotation of the crystal axes takes place at any instant of time dependent on the orientation of the grain relative to the stretching axes. Because of this dependence the skeletal outline^* of a pattern of preferred orientation is sensitive to the closing stages of deformation. Thus fabrics measured in major movement zones cannot be related to early thrust or shear displacements without considering the effects of the geological history subsequent to those events.Nevertheless, asymmetric fabrics in movement zones may allow determination of the shear direction and sense of shear. Asymmetry in the intensity distribution is less susceptible to modification than asymmetry in the fabric skeleton, and may remain as a persistent measure of the sense of shear in mylonites subjected to coaxial deformation after non-coaxial events. However, fabric asymmetry need not always be related to the deformation history, and effects related to the population of initial grain-orientations must be considered, as well as the influence of recrystallization and grain growth.A problem of scale is involved in extrapolating the movement picture inferred from the behaviour of a few hundred crystal grains to larger dimensions. This question is also encountered when trying to specify deformation paths in mesoscopic shear zones. It is difficult to obtain simple shear experimentally because of the role discontinuities play in deformation. In certain cases in natural shear zones the quartz grains may be subjected to a coaxial deformation path while the bulk deformation is progressive simple shear. Caution must therefore be exercised when attempting to use quartz fabrics to infer characteristics of the bulk kinematics or movement picture applicable during deformation.     

Pseudotachylite associated with a bedding-parallel fault zone between the Witwatersrand and Ventersdorp Supergroups,South Africa

A Proterozoic bedding-parallel fault zone is described from the Witwatersrand basin in South Africa. The fault zone is dominated by pseudotachylite, the youngest tectonite present, but also contains quartz veins and cataclasites which post-date the spatially associated mylonites. Both tectonic eliminations and duplications are caused by the fault zone which is dominated by a northerly to westerly overthrusting. The fault rocks probably did not form during a single event but as a result of a minimum of two periods of activation of the fault zone separated in time by at least the period required to deposit in excess of 4 km of sediments belonging to the lower part of the Transvaal Sequence. Equivocal evidence suggests that the pseudotachylites, which probably formed as a result of frictional fusion on fault planes, may have formed at similar depths to the mylonites. Consequently the related parameters of pressure and temperature are not considered to be as important in determining whether brittle or ductile deformation occurs, as are pore fluid pressure and strain rate. The age, direction of tectonic transport and a characteristic enrichment in lead all suggest that there may be a genetic link between the pseudotachylites in this fault zone and the type pseudotachylites at Vredefort, 60 km to the south.     

红河断裂带中南段断层活动转换构造岩特征及应力场演化

通过对红河断裂带中南段18个糜棱岩、12个角砾岩、10个碎裂岩和8个砂砾岩详细的显微结构观察,部分典型样品的磷灰石裂变径迹(FT)测年及利用断层滑动资料反演构造应力张量的方法,获得了红河断裂带中南段断层活动转换过程微观特征的变化:断层岩为糜棱岩的微结构特征显示红河断裂带早期断层活动为左旋走滑,糜棱岩和未变形的砂砾岩FT年龄均大于20 Ma,表明这期间红河断裂带曾发生过一次构造热事件.断层岩为碎裂岩和角砾岩的微结构特征显示红河断裂带后期断层活动为右旋走滑.微结构特征不同的碎裂岩和角砾岩的FT年龄可分为3个时段(9.9～12.7 Ma、6.8～8.4 Ma、2.0～4.6 Ma),测年结果和应力场特征表明红河断裂带中新世以来曾发生过3次断层错动事件,且第1次事件应力结构为走滑型,第2、3次事件应力结构为正断型.     

Strain and shape-fabric variations associated with ductile shear zones

The foliated and compositionally-banded granitic orthogneisses in the central core of the Maggia Nappe, a Lower Pennine basement nappe of the Central Swiss Alps, are shown to be the sheared equivalent of late-Hercynian age granitic intrusions. These ductile shear zones show mineral assemblages in amphibolite facies, are Alpine in age and form an anastomosing network enclosing remnant lozenge-shaped pods of relatively undeformed rock.The foliation developed within the shear zones concomitantly with a change in shape of quartz grain aggregates from initially equidimensional, through ‘tear-drop’ shapes, to ribbon-like aggregates. These shape changes occurred by intracrystalline glide together with intercrystalline slip on deformation-induced planar surfaces.     

Origin of fault domains and fault-domain boundaries (transfer zones and accommodation zones) in extensional provinces: Result of random nucleation and self-organized fault growth

In many extensional provinces, large normal faults dip in the same direction forming fault domains. Features variously named transfer faults, transfer zones, and accommodation zones (hereafter non-genetically referred to as fault-domain boundaries) separate adjacent fault domains. Experimental modeling of distributed extension provides insights on the origin, geometry, and evolution of these fault domains and fault-domain boundaries. In our scaled models, a homogeneous layer of wet clay or dry sand overlies a latex sheet that is stretched orthogonally or obliquely between two rigid sheets. Fault domains and fault-domain boundaries develop in all models in both map view and cross-section. The number, size, and arrangement of fault domains as well as the number and orientation of fault-domain boundaries are variable, even for models with identical boundary conditions. The fault-domain boundaries in our models differ profoundly from those in many published conceptual models of transfer/accommodation zones. In our models, fault-domain boundaries are broad zones of deformation (not discrete strike-slip or oblique-slip faults), their orientations are not systematically related to the extension direction, and they can form spontaneously without any prescribed pre-existing zones of weakness. We propose that fault domains develop because early-formed faults perturb the stress field, causing new nearby faults to dip in the same direction (self-organized growth). As extension continues, faults from adjacent fault domains propagate toward each another. Because opposite-dipping faults interfere with one another in the zone of overlap, the faults stop propagating. In this case, the geometry of the domain boundaries depends on the spatial arrangement of the earliest formed faults, a result of the random distribution of the largest flaws at which the faults nucleate.     

基于煤岩层与断层空间关系的防隔水煤岩柱优化计算

近断层煤层开采时,防隔水煤岩柱的正确留设是防止断层突水事故的重要措施。山东济宁三号煤矿123_上01(南)工作面西邻的F8断层落差较大,可能会沟通底部奥陶系灰岩(简称奥灰)含水层,为确保工作面安全回采,需要进行F8断层防隔水煤岩柱尺寸计算。考虑煤岩层真实产状、断层面与煤层产状的空间关系和底板承压水威胁,对《煤矿防治水细则》中断层导水条件下的防隔水煤岩柱尺寸计算方式进行改进,推导出水位到安全防隔水煤岩柱宽度(H_a)在断层面垂足处的水头高度计算公式及改进后的断层防隔水煤岩柱尺寸计算公式。对比计算结果发现:《煤矿防治水细则》原有计算公式在将煤岩层理想化为水平岩层,且取偏小的煤层底板水压值计算的情况下,计算出的F8断层煤岩柱尺寸为112 m,改进公式的计算结果为128.5 m。因改进公式考虑了实际煤岩层产状及与断层面空间关系,且水压取值位置准确,计算结果更为精确,将为矿井安全回采提供更为科学的参考依据。      

俯冲带镁铁质堆晶岩的母岩浆恢复: 方法与实例

古老俯冲带/造山带结构的恢复是重建古板块构造的基石。然而,古俯冲带/造山带由于受到造山作用和随后强烈的构造改造、隆升与剥蚀作用,绝大多数弧岩浆岩尤其是玄武岩较为缺乏,通常仅保留了代表弧下地壳的超镁铁质-镁铁质堆晶岩。从严格意义上来说,镁铁质堆晶岩是造岩矿物、副矿物与粒间熔体的集合体,其全岩成分不能代表弧岩浆本身,因此运用其地球化学来讨论俯冲带演化存在诸多不确定性和多解性。在前人提出的平衡配分方法基础上,作者近年来建立了基于单斜辉石和角闪石的俯冲带镁铁质堆晶岩的母岩浆恢复方法,并根据样品在原始地幔标准化微量元素蛛网图中的异常变化情况,通过增减相关的副矿物成分予以校正。该方法广泛应用于中国东北、华南、中亚造山带和云开地区等古俯冲带/造山带镁铁质堆晶岩的母岩浆成分恢复。通过对比计算结果与全岩的实测成分,发现两种方法获得的Th/La、Ba/La和Ba/Nb比值差别不大,反映这些微量元素比值可以用于示踪古俯冲带地幔楔的改造过程。然而计算获得的Th/Yb比值则明显比镁铁质堆晶岩的全岩实测值偏高,因此该比值不适合用来示踪俯冲带中沉积物的贡献。

     

Quasi-adiabatic shear zones in the lithosphere: numerical and experimental approaches

Continental breakup, or compressive lithosphere scale faulting, requires a physical mechanism for wholesale faulting of the lithosphere. We compared numerical and experimental models for the nucleation of quasi-adiabatic shear bands in polyvinylchloride (PVC) with those in an idealized viscoelastoplastic mantle with olivine rheology. In both materials fault nucleation is caused by elastic stress concentration on pre-existing imperfections, with localized yielding confined to its vicinity. Faulting occurs rapidly after the initial elastic energy in the system is charged sufficiently to cause wholesale yielding. Propagation of the fault, monitored by looking at the dissipation of plastic energy, reveals migration of a sharp, thermal-mechanical “crack”- like instability, which appears in the temperature field as a slightly diffused signal. The initial temperature rise in the crack is subtle but increases suddenly when the plate is severed. This autocatalytic behavior has also been described in ductile polymers, which can be used as mechanical analogues. We suggest that elastoplastic coupling in quasi-adiabatic shear banding is a key for fast (< 1 Ma) nucleation of shear zones. These nonlinear phenomena will be illustrated for both experimental and numerical results by nine movies     

准噶尔盆地南缘霍尔果斯和吐谷鲁断裂带断层泥分形特征与断裂活动关系

根据采集的天然断层泥样品 ,对准噶尔盆地南缘霍尔果斯和吐谷鲁逆断裂带中断层泥进行了显微构造、显微形貌和分形研究。研究结果表明 ,断层泥至少存在三期变形 ;同时断层泥和石英碎粒中既发育有线状擦痕、阶步等典型的粘滑活动显微构造 ,也发育有剪切滑动、定向排列等典型的蠕滑活动变形现象 ,说明了断裂活动的长期性和复杂性。断层泥的分形研究表明 ,霍尔果斯和吐谷鲁断裂带断层泥分维值分别在 2 .17～ 2 .6 3和 2 .76～ 2 .89变化 ,分维值与断层运动方式粘滑或蠕滑不存在因果关系。因此 ,断层泥分维值能否作为判别断裂活动方式值得进一步研究。     

Transfer zones and fault reactivation in inverted rift basins: Insights from physical modelling

Carbonate mylonites with varying proportions of second-phase minerals were collected at positions of increasing metamorphic grade along the basal thrust of the Morcles nappe (Helvetic nappes, Switzerland). Variations of temperature, stress, and strain rate, changes in chemistry of solid and fluid phases, and differing degrees of strain localization and annealing were tracked by measuring the shapes, mean sizes, and size distributions of both matrix and second-phase grains, as well as crystal preferred orientation (CPO) of the matrix. Field structures suggest that strain rate was constant along the fault. The mean and distribution of the calcite grain sizes were affected most profoundly by temperature: Increased temperature, presumably accompanied by decreased stress, correlated with larger mean sizes and wider size distributions. At a given location, the matrix grains in mylonites with more second-phase particles are, on average, smaller, have narrower size distributions, and have more elongate shapes. For example, mylonites with 50 vol.% of second phases have matrix grain sizes half that of pure mylonites. Changes in calcite chemistry and the presence of synkinematic fluids seemed to influence microfabric only weakly. Temporal variations in conditions, such as exhumation-induced cooling, apparently provoke changes in temperature, stress, and strain rate along the nappe. These changes result in further strain localization during retrograde conditions and cause the grain size to be reduced by an additional 50%. The matrix CPO strengthens with increasing temperature or strain, but weakens and rotates with increasing second-phase content. These fabric changes suggest differing rates of grain growth, grain size reduction, and development of CPO owing to variations in the deformation conditions and, perhaps, mechanisms. To interpret natural mylonite structures or to extrapolate mechanical data to natural situations requires careful characterization of the microfabric, and, in particular, second-phase minerals.     

Major fracture zones of Morocco: The South Atlas and the Transalboran fault systems

Within the fracturai pattern of Morocco, 35–45° and 70–90° directions are predominant. Most of the faults originated already during the Upper Palaeozoic and were repeatedly reactivated, later on. Two of the large fracture systems are considered here.The South Atlas fault system (SAF) is composed of different faults with directions varying between 45–90°. They were not functionally connected to the southern hinge of the High Atlas until its Miocene uplift. Today, it seems to be inactive on the whole. Both the tectonic data and the facies distribution of Mesozoic strata contradict clearly the interpretation that the SAF is a huge wrench-fault or even the Mesozoic plate margin of Africa. The SW striking Transalboran fault system (TAF) is still active. It crosses Morocco from Melilla to Agadir, showing again singular faults which are unified to extended lineaments only in a few areas. The intervals between the faults are bridged by linear arrangements of earthquake hypocenters. Sinistral massflow within the deeper parts of the lithosphere seems to be compensated at the surface by movements along pre-existing faults. For the Moroccan segment of the TAF, a sinsitral displacement is testified at least since the Oligocene, while the northeastern segments from the Rif to Spain did not even originate until the Pliocene. This would mean that sinistral shear was transmitted from Africa into the accreted Alboran and Iberia blocks after the Miocene collision.

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Zusammenfassung Unter den großen Störungen Marokkos dominieren die Richtungen 35–45° und 70–90°. Sie wurden zumeist im Jungpaläozoikum angelegt und später wiederholt reaktiviert. Zwei der großen Bruchsysteme wurden näher untersucht:Die Südatlas-Störungszone (SAF) besteht aus unzusammenhängenden Brüchen unterschiedlichen Alters, deren Streichrichtung von 45–90° variiert. Diese wurden erst bei der miozänen Heraushebung des Hohen Atlas zu dessen südlichem Scharnier umfunktioniert. Heute sind nur wenige Störungen des Systems aktiv. Diese Befunde und ebenso die stratigraphisch-fazielle Entwicklung im Mesozoikum Marokkos verbieten, die SAF als bedeutende Lateralverschiebungszone oder gar als nördliche Plattengrenze Afrikas zu interpretieren.Das noch heute aktive, SW-streichende Transalboran-Störungssystem (TAF) setzt sich durch Marokko von Melilla bis Agadir fort. Es besteht an der Oberfläche ebenfals aus singulären Brüchen, die sich nur bereichsweise zu längeren Linien zusammenschließen. Zwischen den Störungen vermitteln linear angeordnete Herde rezenter Erdbeben: Sinistraler Massentransport an einer Tiefenstörung wird an der Oberfläche durch Teilbewegungen an präexistenten Störungen kompensiert. Während in Marokko südlich des Rifs sinistraler Versatz mindestens seit dem Oligozän nachgewiesen ist, entstand die TAF vom Rif bis nach Spanien erst im Pliozän. Die sinistrale Scherung tritt also erst nach der miozänen Kollision von Afrika aus auf die nunmehr akkretierten Mikroplatten- Alboran-Block und Iberia - über.

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Résumé Les grandes fractures du Maroc présentent les deux directions prédominantes de 35°-40° et 70°–90°. La plupart de ces fractures datent du Paléozoïque supérieur et ont été réactivées plusieurs fois au Mésozoïque et au Cénozoïque. Deux de ces grands systèmes de fractures sont considérés ici.L'accident sud-atlasien (SAF) est composé de fractures indépendantes d'âges divers dont la direction varie entre 45° et 90°. Ces fractures ne se sont connectées à la charnière du Haut Atlas qu'après le soulèvement miocène de celui-ci. Aujourd'hui, quelques failles seulement sont encore actives. Ces observations, ainsi que la distribution des faciès du Mésozoïque au Maroc sont en contradiction avec le modèle qui voit dans le SAF une grande zone de décrochement ou même la marge nord de la plaque africaine.L'accident transalboran (TAF), encore actif aujourd'hui, traverse le Maroc en direction sudouest de Mélilla à Agadir. Il est composé de failles discontinues, connectées entre elles seulement à quelques endroits. Les intervalles qui séparent ces failles sont jalonnés par des alignements rectilignes d'hypocentres de séismes récents. L'ensemble correspond à un décrochement sénestre profond compensé en surface par des mouvements le long de failles préexistantes. Ce décrochement sénestre, dans le segment du TAF situé au sud du Rif, s'est manifesté au moins depuis l'Oligocène, tandis que la partie qui s'étend du Rif à l'Espagne méridionale n'a été active qu'à partir du Pliocène. Ceci signifie que ce cisaillement sénestre ne s'est transmis de l'Afrique vers l'Europe qu'après l'accrétion, au Miocène, de la microplaque Alboran et du bloc ibérique.

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The nature and origin of off-fault damage surrounding strike-slip fault zones with a wide range of displacements: A field study from the Atacama fault system, northern Chile

Damage surrounding the core of faults is represented by deformation on a range of scales from microfracturing of the rock matrix to macroscopic fracture networks. The spatial distribution and geometric characterization of damage at various scales can help to predict fault growth processes, subsequent mechanics, bulk hydraulic and seismological properties of a fault zone. Within the excellently exposed Atacama fault system, northern Chile, micro- and macroscale fracture densities and orientation surrounding strike-slip faults with well-constrained displacements ranging over nearly 5 orders of magnitude (0.12 m–5000 m) have been analyzed. Faults have been studied that cut granodiorite and have been passively exhumed from 6 to 10 km depth. This allows direct comparison of the damage surrounding faults of different displacements. The faults consist of a fault core and associated damage zone. Macrofractures in the damage zone are predominantly shear fractures orientated at high angles to the faults studied. They have a reasonably well-defined exponential decrease with distance from the fault core. Microfractures are a combination of open, healed, partially healed and fluid inclusion planes (FIPs). FIPs are the earliest set of fractures and show an exponential decrease in fracture density with perpendicular distance from the fault core. Later microfractures do not show a clear relationship of microfracture density with perpendicular distance from the fault core. Damage zone widths defined by the density of FIPs scale with fault displacement but appear to reach a maximum at a few km displacement. One fault, where damage was characterized on both sides of the fault core shows no damage asymmetry. All faults appear to have a critical microfracture density at the fault core/damage zone boundary that is independent of displacement. An empirical relationship for microfracture density distribution with displacement is presented. Preferred FIP orientations have a high angle to the fault close to the fault core and become more diffuse with distance. Models that predict off-fault damage such as a migrating process zone during fault formation, wear from geometrical irregularities and dynamic rupture are all consistent with our data. We conclude it is very difficult to distinguish between them on the basis of field data alone, at least within the limits of this study.     

On the internal structure and mechanics of large strike-slip fault zones: field observations of the Carboneras fault in southeastern Spain

Deciphering the internal structure of large fault zones is fundamental if a proper understanding is to be gained of their mechanical, hydrological and seismological properties. To this end, new detailed mapping and microstructural observations of the excellently exposed Carboneras fault zone in southeastern Spain have been used to elucidate both the internal arrangement of fault products and their likely mechanical properties. The fault is a 40 km offset strike-slip fault, which constitutes part of the Africa–Iberia plate boundary. The zone of faulting is 1 km in width not including the associated damage zone surrounding the fault. It is composed of continuous strands of phyllosilicate-rich fault gouge that bound lenses of variably broken-up protolith. This arrangement provides a number of fluid flow and fluid sealing possibilities within the fault zone. The gouge strands exhibit distributed deformation and are inferred to have strain hardening and/or velocity hardening characteristics. Also included in the fault zone are blocks of dolomite that contain thin (<1 cm thick) fault planes inferred to have been produced by strain weakening/velocity weakening behaviour. These fault planes have a predominantly R₁ Riedel shear orientation and are arranged in an en echelon pattern. A conceptual model of this type of wide fault zone is proposed which contrasts with previous narrow fault zone models. The observed structural and inferred mechanical characteristics of the Carboneras fault zone are compared to seismological observations of the San Andreas fault around Parkfield, CA. Similarities suggest that the Carboneras fault structure may be a useful analogue for this portion of the San Andreas fault at depth.