Geomorphological hazards related to deep dissolution phenomena in the Western Italian Alps: Distribution, assessment and interaction with human activities

Deep dissolution affects great part of soluble rocks (e.g. gypsum and anhydrite) of the Western Italian Alps. The related superficial phenomena (sinkholes, gravity-induced processes and a local worsening of geomechanical rock properties) are not limited to typical karsts landscape and cause slope instability also affecting populated sites and infrastructures. The paper aims to describe general characteristic of dissolution phenomena, to interpret their conditioning factors and evolutionary stages and to assess possible hazards due to their superficial effects.The search for evidences of deep dissolution leads to the selection of representative sites in the central part of the Western Italian Alps (Piemonte and Valle d'Aosta Region). Detailed geological and geomorphological studies have been used to classify the selected sites by type, size and variable state of activity. Very different evolutionary stages of dissolution phenomena have been interpreted by comparison of case-studies: some are early “embryonic”; others are more evolved, up to typical sinkholes, or even remodelled by other phenomena. Some cases show an extreme complexity in the interactions between corrosion phenomena and other geomorphic processes: slope deformations, from one side, and karst, fluvial and glacial phenomena, to the other. A wide range of movement rates on slope instabilities induced by deep dissolution have been estimated by topographic and geomorphic data. Geochemical data on removed rocks by dissolution indicate 0.4 mm/year values for local subsidence. Historical and technical data indicate low frequency of major dissolution-induced collapses, but highlight widespread damages to tunnels, roads and buildings, especially along slopes.     

Formation mechanism of large sinkhole collapses in Laibin,Guangxi, China

On June 3, 2010, a series of karst sinkholes occurred at Jili village surrounded by Gui-Bei highway, Wu-Ping highway and Nan-Liu High-Speed Railway in Laibin, Guangxi, China. The straight-line distances from an large sinkhole pit, 85 m in diameter and 38 m in depth, to the above mainlines are 200, 600 and 500 m, respectively. Several investigation methods including geophysical technology, borehole and well drilling, groundwater elevation survey and hydrochemistry analysis of groundwater were used to study the formation mechanisms of these sinkholes. Based on the results, the spatial distribution of the Jili underground river was confirmed with a strike of SN along the middle Carboniferous limestone bedrock and the Quaternary deposits controlled the sinkhole formation. In addition, both historical sinkhole events and analysis of the groundwater–air pressure monitoring data installed in the underlying karst conduit system indicate that sinkholes in this area are more likely induced by extreme weather conditions within typical karst geological settings. Extreme weather conditions in the study area before the sinkhole collapses consisted of a year-long drought followed by continuous precipitation with a daily maximum precipitation of 442 mm between May 31 and June 1, 2010. Typical geological conditions include the Jili underground river overlain by the Quaternary overburden with thick clayey rubble. Especially in the recharge zone of the underground river, a stabilized shallow water table was formed in response to the extreme rainstorm because of the presence of the thick clayey rubble. When the underground conduit was flooded through the cave entrance on the surface, air blasting may have caused the cave roof collapse followed by formation of soil cavities and surface collapses. Borehole monitoring results of the groundwater–air pressure monitoring show that the potential karst sinkhole can pose threats to Shanbei village, the High-Speed Railway and the Wu-Ping highway. Local government needs to be aware of any early indicators of this geohazard so that devastating sinkholes can be prevented in the future. The results also suggest that groundwater–air pressure monitoring data collected both the Quaternary deposits and the bedrock karst system provide useful indicators for potential sinkhole collapses in similar karst areas where sinkholes usually occur during rainy season or karst groundwater level is always under the rockhead.     

Mechanism of sinkhole formation during groundwater-level recovery in karst mining area,Dachengqiao, Hunan province,China

The Meitanba Coal Mine area in Hunan province, China, had been impacted by severe cover collapse sinkholes since 1982 due to mine dewatering. After the coal mine was closed in February 2015, the groundwater level has increased significantly. A series of sinkholes were recorded in the study area during groundwater-level recovery. Analysis of monitoring results and in-situ investigation indicated that 13 sinkhole collapses were more likely induced by abrupt change of groundwater–air pressure in response to heavy rainfall from March 2015 to July 2016 when the groundwater level increased by as much as 76 m. When the karst conduit was flooded, a relatively sealed environment was formed between saturated sediments and flooded karst conduit. Implosion of entrapped air might have caused the cave roof to collapse followed by surface collapses in a short time. On the other hand, four sinkholes occurred in November 2016 when the groundwater levels were near the soil–bedrock interface at elevations between 52.5 and 58.9 m amsl and the groundwater-level increase was at slower paces. Field measurements indicate that the groundwater-level fluctuation at the soil–bedrock interface could enlarge the soil cavity and accelerate the subsoil erosion process.     

Identification of buried sinkholes using refraction tomography at Ft. Campbell Army Airfield,Kentucky

Karst aquifers are highly susceptible to contamination, with numerous points of entry for contaminants through recharge features such as sinkholes, swallow holes and solutionally enlarged fractures. These recharge features may be filled or obscured at the surface, requiring the use of geophysical or remote sensing techniques for their identification. This study uses seismic refraction data collected at the Ft. Campbell Army Airfield (CAAF), Kentucky, USA, to test the hypothesis that refraction tomography is a useful tool for imaging bedrock depressions beneath thick overburden (greater than 20 m of unconsolidated sediment). Southeast of the main taxiway of CAAF seismic velocity tomograms imaged a bedrock low, possibly a closed depression, at a depth of 25 m that had been earlier identified through delay-time analysis of the same refraction data. Tomography suggests the bedrock low is about 250-m wide by 10-m deep at its widest point. High rates of contaminant vapor extraction over the western extension of this feature suggest a high concentration of contaminants above, and within, this filled bedrock low, the base of which may contain solutionally enlarged fractures (i.e. karst conduits) that could funnel these contaminants to the upper or lower bedrock aquifers. This study thus demonstrates the viability of seismic refraction tomography as a tool for identification of filled sinkholes and bedrock depressions in karst areas.     

Paleosubsidence and active subsidence due to evaporite dissolution in the Zaragoza area (Huerva River valley, NE Spain): processes, spatial distribution and protection measures for transport routes

The lowest 17-km long reach of the Huerva River valley, down to its confluence with the Ebro River in Zaragoza city, flows across salt-bearing evaporites of the Ebro Tertiary Basin (NE Spain). Upstream, the horizontally lying Miocene evaporites are interfingered with non-soluble distal alluvial fan facies (shales and sandstones). The proportion of soluble facies in the Huerva River valley increases in a downstream direction towards the basin depocenter. On the basis of the type and magnitude of the paleosubsidence features, the valley has been divided into four reaches. Along reach I, undeformed terrace deposits less than 4 m thick rest on insoluble detrital bedrock. In reaches II and III, dissolution at the alluvium–bedrock boundary has generated local thickening, deformation and paleocollapse structures, which only affect the alluvial mantle. In reach IV, terrace deposits thicken to over 60 m resulting from a large-scale synsedimentary subsidence. In this sector, subsidence locally affects to both the alluvium and the underlying bedrock. This indicates that dissolution acts at the rockhead beneath the alluvial cover (alluvial karst) and within the evaporitic substratum (interstratal karst). The development of an intraevaporitic karst in reach IV is attributed to gypsum and salt dissolution. Irregular terrace gravel bodies (gravel pockets) embedded in a fine-grained matrix associated with paleocollapse structures have been interpreted as liquefaction–fluidization structures resulting from ground acceleration and suction induced by catastrophic collapses. Subsidence is currently active in the region affecting areas with a thin alluvial cover in reaches III and IV. The low subsidence activity in most of Zaragoza city is explained by the presence of thickened (around 50 m) and indurated alluvial deposits. In the surrounding area, numerous buildings in Cadrete and Santa Fe villages have been severely damaged by subsidence. Natural and human-induced subsidence favours the development of slope movements in the gypsum scarp overlooking Cadrete village. Several transport routes including the Imperial Canal (irrigation canal) and the recently completed Madrid–Barcelona high-speed railway are affected by human-induced sinkholes. The paleocollapse structures exposed in the trenches of this railway and a ring road under construction point to hazardous locations underlain by cavities and collapse structures where special protection measures should be applied. Rigid structures are recommended beneath the high-speed railway with sufficient strength to span the larger sinkholes with no deformation. Electronic monitoring devices linked to a warning system can detect subtle subsidence-induced deformations in carriageways or railways. This research demonstrates that the study of the paleokarst helps to understand the processes involved in the present-day subsidence phenomena and their general spatial distribution.     

云南泸水市压扭性构造对银厂坪白云岩岩溶系统发育控制作用

银厂坪岩溶系统由溶蚀洼地和溶洞系统组成,溶蚀洼地内发育15个规模和形态不同的落水洞以及多条溶沟。根据断层面擦痕反演构造应力张量和共轭剪节理反映的应力场特征, 结合区域地质背景,认为研究区于始新世—早中新世主要受 SEE-NWW 向挤压和 NNE-SSW 向拉张应力场控制,形成 NW 向左旋压扭性构造,其几何学和运动学特征符合里德尔剪切模式。走滑拉分阶区所形成凹陷具有汇水功能,利于岩溶作用形成溶蚀洼地,内部发育的共轭节理交汇部位是良好的导水构造,叠加在走滑微拉分阶区内,促进白云岩溶蚀作用形成落水洞。地下岩层受构造挤压发生层间滑动形成微裂隙,经溶蚀扩大,形成顺倾斜岩层发育的岩溶洞穴。左行走滑断裂造成地表河流和山脊发生系统左旋位错,发育断层崖于山脚处形成倒石堆,在构造抬升和剥蚀作用下,岩壁不断后退,地下河频繁袭夺使早期溶洞成为干洞,现代地下河于斜坡下游通过地下河出口转为明流。     

Origin and distribution of different types of sinkholes in the plain areas of Southern Italy

Sinkholes constitute a significant risk in many karst areas, and may even threat human safety. Collapse sinkholes that occur catastrophically without showing premonitory signs may result in severe economic losses and casualties. In the last years, research on sinkholes and related detrimental effects has significantly increased in Italy, in the aftermath of remarkable events.

Aimed at analysing the peculiar conditions which lead to sinkhole occurrence in Southern Italy, a set of cases in the plain areas of Campania, Apulia and Calabria is discussed. The considered regions show a wide variety of environmental conditions. In Campania, the plains are underlain by alluvial deposits with intercalations of volcaniclastic sediments. Sinkholes are generally located along the Tyrrhenian margin of the carbonate massifs or within intramontane Apennine basins. In Apulia, a flat and elongated peninsula, most of the cases occur on calcarenites overlying limestone bedrock along the coast. In Calabria, one of the most seismogenic Italian regions, the surveyed cases seem to be attributable mainly to earthquake-induced liquefaction.

The article provides a first glance on the variety of sinkholes in the plain areas of Southern Italy, to highlight the possibility of further subsidence events in the considered regions, as well as in other comparable areas of the country.     

GIS and ANN coupling model: an innovative approach to evaluate vulnerability of karst water inrush in coalmines of north China

Evaporites, including rock salt (halite) and gypsum (or anhydrite), are the most soluble among common rocks; they dissolve readily to form the same types of karst features that commonly are found in limestones and dolomites. Evaporites are present in 32 of the 48 contiguous states in USA, and they underlie about 40% of the land area. Typical evaporite-karst features observed in outcrops include sinkholes, caves, disappearing streams, and springs, whereas other evidence of active evaporite karst includes surface-collapse structures and saline springs or saline plumes that result from salt dissolution. Many evaporites also contain evidence of paleokarst, such as dissolution breccias, breccia pipes, slumped beds, and collapse structures. All these natural karst phenomena can be sources of engineering or environmental problems. Dangerous sinkholes and caves can form rapidly in evaporite rocks, or pre-existing karst features can be reactivated and open up (collapse) under certain hydrologic conditions or when the land is put to new uses. Many karst features also propagate upward through overlying surficial deposits. Human activities also have caused development of evaporite karst, primarily in salt deposits. Boreholes (petroleum tests or solution-mining operations) or underground mines may enable unsaturated water to flow through or against salt deposits, either intentionally or accidentally, thus allowing development of small to large dissolution cavities. If the dissolution cavity is large enough and shallow enough, successive roof failures can cause land subsidence and/or catastrophic collapse. Evaporite karst, natural and human-induced, is far more prevalent than is commonly believed.     

Evaluation of susceptibility for terrain collapse and subsidence in karst areas,municipality of Iraquara,Chapada Diamantina (BA), Brazil

The morphological evolution of the karstic systems is associated with a set of physical and chemical processes, triggered by the dissolution of the rocks, related to percolation of groundwater and surface water, which consequently open underground voids and carve out peculiar forms of relief. Due to environmental and geotechnical aspects, this system is naturally more fragile and vulnerable than other natural systems and, therefore, has increasingly received the attention of the scientific community over the past decades. The objective of the study was to delimit zones with varying degrees of susceptibility for collapses and subsidence of sinkholes in the municipality of Iraquara, Chapada Diamantina (BA), Brazil, and to understand their geological and morphological determinant factors. Geological data, karst phenomenon map, and visual analysis in the field were used to categorize zones with different types of susceptibilities to the nucleation of new sinkholes based on a Hazard Index. This index was defined from the sum of geological hazard factors, lineament density, and sinkhole density. The areas that presented the highest susceptibility for terrain collapse and subsidence corresponded to regions where carbonate rocks outcrop, with high density of photolineaments and 2.62 sinkholes/km². Processes associated with terrain collapse and subsidence in karst areas consisted of a combination of various factors, hindering precise predictions. However, zones of different types of susceptibilities to terrain collapse and subsidence can be delimited when the relationships between these processes and their factors are understood. The Hazard Index proposed does not provide quantitative values for the probability of hazard susceptibility, but rather indicates areas that are more susceptible to terrain subsidence and collapse.     

The application of GPR and electrical resistivity tomography as useful tools in detection of sinkholes in the Cheria Basin (northeast of Algeria)

Sinkhole collapse is one of the main limitations in the development of karst areas, especially where bedrock is covered by unconsolidated material. Studies of sinkhole formation have shown that sinkholes are likely to develop in cutter (enlarged joint) zones as a result of subterranean erosion by flowing groundwater. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity imaging or tomography (RESTOM) are well suited to mapping sinkholes because of the ability of these two techniques for detecting voids and discriminating subtle resistivity variations. Nine GPR profiles and two-dimensional electrical resistivity tomography have been applied, with relative success, to locate paleo-collapses and cavities, and to detect and characterize karst at two sinkhole sites near Cheria City where limestone is covered by about 10 m of clayey soils. The survey results suggest that GPR and RESTOM are ideal geophysical tools to aid in the detection and monitoring of sinkholes and other subsurface cavities.     

A genetic classification of sinkholes illustrated from evaporite paleokarst exposures in Spain

This contribution analyses the processes involved in the generation of sinkholes from the study of paleokarst features exposed in four Spanish Tertiary basins. Bedrock strata are subhorizontal evaporites, and in three of the basins they include halite and glauberite in the subsurface. Our studies suggest that formation of dolines in these areas results from a wider range of subsidence processes than those included in the most recently published sinkhole classifications; a new genetic classification of sinkholes applicable to both carbonate and evaporite karst areas is thus proposed. With the exception of solution dolines, it defines the main sinkhole types by use of two terms that refer to the material affected by downward gravitational movements (cover, bedrock or caprock) and the main type of process involved (collapse, suffosion or sagging). Sinkholes that result from the combination of several subsidence processes and affect more than one type of material are described by combinations of the different terms with the dominant material or process followed by the secondary one (e.g. bedrock sagging and collapse sinkhole). The mechanism of collapse includes any brittle gravitational deformation of cover and bedrock material, such as upward stoping of cavities by roof failure, development of well-defined failure planes and rock brecciation. Suffosion is the downward migration of cover deposits through dissolutional conduits accompanied with ductile settling. Sagging is the ductile flexure of sediments caused by differential corrosional lowering of the rockhead or interstratal karstification of the soluble bedrock. The paleokarsts we analysed suggest that the sagging mechanism (not included in previous genetic classifications) plays an important role in the generation of sinkholes in evaporites. Moreover, collapse processes are more significant in extent and rate in areas underlain by evaporites than in carbonate karst, primarily due to the greater solubility of the evaporites and the lower mechanical strength and ductile rheology of gypsum and salt rocks.     

Evaporite karst and sinkholes: a synthesis on the case of Camaiore (Italy)

In 1995 a sinkhole suddenly formed at Camaiore (Tuscany, Italy), causing destruction or heavy damages to several houses and resulting in the evacuation of many people. To understand the causes, for the formation and evolution of the collapse, surface and underground geologic features were investigated and reconstructed on the basis of geologic and geognostic surveys. The sinkhole area is underlain by thick alluvial deposits that cover a bedrock consisting of the Calcare cavernoso formation. This formation results from hydration and dissolution of Triassic evaporites and has a characteristic spongy and vacuolate texture. The bedrock contains karst cavities, generally filled by breccia and/or alluvial materials. Thus, the sinkhole disaster could be ascribed to deep collapse of a cave in the bedrock, and might be considered a distant effect of ancient karst phenomena in evaporites.     

Characterization of the shallow groundwater system in an area with thin soils and sinkholes

Door County, Wisconsin, is a region of karst topography underlain by Silurian dolomite bedrock. Numerous sinkholes intercept much of the surface runoff and act as sites for direct groundwater recharge. The clay-rich and impermeable Upper Ordovician Maquoketa formation separates the dolomite aquifer from the deeper aquifers and appears to be a factor in groundwater circulation and karst formation Thin glacial drift and Quaternary materials overlie the dolomite and are hydrologically connected with it The interactions of surface and groundwater, and the role of solution features in water interchange were studied in a small drainage basin. This basin contains several large sinkholes and a nearby spring complex Mapping identified many additional sinks and swallets in surface drainage routes Water flowing into two sinks was traced and found to have a residence time of several hours. Water flowing into sinkholes and from the spring was sampled to identify the quality and seasonal trends in composition of the shallow groundwater Water quality parameters monitored include magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphorous, nitrate and ammonia, nitrogen, alkalinity, pH, turbidity, and specific conductance. Nitrate levels were found to increase 5 to 6 times during periods when there was zero input through sinkhole recharge sites. Nitrate levels approached the 10 mg/l NO₃ ⁻-N limit set by the U.S. Public Health Service for drinking water In this basin sandy soils are most susceptible to sink development, whereas clay-rich soils have a lesser number of sinks. It appears, however, that a network of bedrock solution features exists under all soils The loss of soil into sinkholes has impacted groundwater quality and reduced agricultural productivity through a reduction in tillable acreage and water retention capacity.     

Subsidence hazard avoidance based on geomorphological mapping in the Ebro River valley mantled evaporite karst terrain (NE Spain)

In the valley of the Ebro River to the southeast of the city of Zaragoza (NE Spain), the dissolution of evaporite sediments (gypsum, halite and Na-sulphates) which underlie alluvial deposits gives rise to numerous sinkholes. These sinkholes are a potential hazard to human safety, particularly where they develop in a catastrophic way. Even slow-developing sinkholes are problematic, as they damage urban and agricultural infrastructure, necessitating costly repairs and vigilant maintenance. To assist in developing avoidance strategies for these hazards, the factors controlling sinkhole occurrence have been assessed using geomorphological maps produced from aerial photographs for 1956 and 1981. Important controls on sinkhole development are found to include underlying geological structure (manifest in preferred orientations of sinkholes on the azimuths N130-150E and N30-40E), and the presence of glauberite in the groundwater flow path, which apparently promotes accelerated gypsum dissolution. Perhaps surprisingly, alluvium thickness does not appear to significantly correlate with the density of sinkholes on the floodplain in this area. The maps for 1956 and 1981 reveal that both human activity and natural processes can serve to obscure the true density of sinkhole development. For instance, a large number of sinkholes which were conspicuous in 1956 have since been back-filled by farmers. In the most fluvially active zone of the Ebro valley (the meander belt), the relatively low density of sinkholes compared with adjoining zones suggests that subsidence is being masked by morpho-sedimentary dynamic processes (aggradation and erosion). Careful geomorphological mapping for different time periods yields a much more accurate impression of the frequency of sinkhole development than would be gained from surveying currently visible sinkholes in the area of interest.     

山东省泰莱盆地岩溶塌陷发育特征及形成机理

泰莱盆地位于山东省中部,截止2013年底,盆地内共发生有记录岩溶塌陷97处,161点次,严重威胁人民生命财产安全。文章在总结前人研究基础上,结合最新调查、监测成果,研究了泰莱盆地岩溶塌陷的分布特征、地质结构模式及其形成机理。结果表明:盆地内岩溶塌陷点多集中分布于岩溶地下水降落漏斗及其影响范围内;塌陷点分布受构造控制明显;塌陷区第四系厚度一般小于30 m,下伏基岩主要为奥陶纪灰岩;80%以上的塌陷集中发生于汛期。根据岩溶塌陷点土层结构、地下水动力条件的不同,建立了3种岩溶塌陷的基本地质模式:单层、双层和多层结构土层岩溶塌陷,其中单层结构土层岩溶塌陷的形成历经“真空吸蚀-崩解剥落-塌陷”3个阶段;双层土层结构岩溶塌陷形成演化过程可概括为“渗透变形-崩解垮塌-塌陷”或“真空吸蚀-渗透变形-塌陷”3个阶段;多层结构土层岩溶塌陷历经“真空吸蚀-渗透变形-崩解垮塌-塌陷”4个阶段。      

The influence of urbanization of sinkhole development in central Pennsylvania

The karsted limestone valleys of central Pennsylvania contain two populations of sinkholes. Solution sinkholes occur in the Champlainian limestone units along the margins of the valleys. Solution sinkholes are permanent parts of the landscape and, although a nuisance to construction, do not present other problems. The second population is the suffosional or soil-piping sinkholes These occur on all carbonate rock units including the Beekmantown and Gatesburg dolomites that comprise the two principal carbonate aquifers in the valley. Suffosional sinkholes are the principal land-use hazard. Suffosional sinkholes are transient phonomena. They occur naturally but are exacerbated by runoff modifications that accompany urbanization Suffosional sinkholes are typically 1.5–2.5 m in diameter depending on soil thickness and soil type. The vertical transport of soil to form the void space and soil arch that are the precursors to sinkhole collapse is through solutionally widened fractures and cross-joints and less often through large vertical openings in the bedrock. The limited solution development on the dolomite bedrock combined with soil thickness, seldom greater than 2 m, limits the size of the sinkholes. All aspects of suffosional sinkhole development are shallow processes: transport, piping, void and arch formation, and subsequent collapse take place usually less than 10 m below the land surface Factors exacerbating sinkhole development include pavement, street, and roof runoff which accelerates soil transport Such seemingly minor activities as replacing high grass and brush with mowed grass is observed to accelerate sinkhole development. Dewatering of the aquifer is not a major factor in this region     

淮北市岩溶地下水防污性能评价

为有效保护和合理开发利用岩溶地下水资源,在深入了解评价区水文地质条件基础上,采用PI(保护层和渗透条件)方法,对淮北市岩溶地下水防污性能开展评价。其结果表明,地下水防污性能π值小于2的区域分布在低山丘陵区,该地区基岩埋深＜50m,属于裸渗区;π值2～3的区域主要分布在低山丘陵区、残山和山前区,基岩埋深在50～200m,属于覆盖区;平原区的π值多大于4,基岩埋深＞200m,属于埋藏区。无论是PI评价结果还是评价对象的地质条件均表明,岩溶地下水的防污性能在低山丘陵区为弱和较弱,随着远离山区,防污性能有所提高,平原区的防污性能最佳。      

贵阳永温中学岩溶塌陷发育临界条件研究

通过现场调查,永温中学校区内及周围存在7处塌陷点,1处塌陷隐患点,严重地威胁着该校师生生命财产安全。研究区基岩可溶性成分多,覆盖粘土层较薄,且地下水溶蚀性强,属于岩溶塌陷的高危险区。为了预防岩溶塌陷灾害,文章总结分析了研究区岩溶塌陷发育的裂隙-渗流-崩解模式,并通过室内模拟试验验证。模拟试验结果表明,土体含水量是崩解作用形成塌陷的关键参数。进一步开展8组不同含水量原状样的崩解试验,结果表明,研究区岩溶塌陷发育的土体含临界水量为26.8%,发育条件为0~26.8%。      

Identification, prediction, and mitigation of sinkhole hazards in evaporite karst areas

Sinkholes usually have a higher probability of occurrence and a greater genetic diversity in evaporite terrains than in carbonate karst areas. This is because evaporites have a higher solubility and, commonly, a lower mechanical strength. Subsidence damage resulting from evaporite dissolution generates substantial losses throughout the world, but the causes are only well understood in a few areas. To deal with these hazards, a phased approach is needed for sinkhole identification, investigation, prediction, and mitigation. Identification techniques include field surveys and geomorphological mapping combined with accounts from local people and historical sources. Detailed sinkhole maps can be constructed from sequential historical maps, recent topographical maps, and digital elevation models (DEMs) complemented with building-damage surveying, remote sensing, and high-resolution geodetic surveys. On a more detailed level, information from exposed paleosubsidence features (paleokarst), speleological explorations, geophysical investigations, trenching, dating techniques, and boreholes may help in investigating dissolution and subsidence features. Information on the hydrogeological pathways including caves, springs, and swallow holes are particularly important especially when corroborated by tracer tests. These diverse data sources make a valuable database—the karst inventory. From this dataset, sinkhole susceptibility zonations (relative probability) may be produced based on the spatial distribution of the features and good knowledge of the local geology. Sinkhole distribution can be investigated by spatial distribution analysis techniques including studies of preferential elongation, alignment, and nearest neighbor analysis. More objective susceptibility models may be obtained by analyzing the statistical relationships between the known sinkholes and the conditioning factors. Chronological information on sinkhole formation is required to estimate the probability of occurrence of sinkholes (number of sinkholes/km² year). Such spatial and temporal predictions, frequently derived from limited records and based on the assumption that past sinkhole activity may be extrapolated to the future, are non-corroborated hypotheses. Validation methods allow us to assess the predictive capability of the susceptibility maps and to transform them into probability maps. Avoiding the most hazardous areas by preventive planning is the safest strategy for development in sinkhole-prone areas. Corrective measures could be applied to reduce the dissolution activity and subsidence processes. A more practical solution for safe development is to reduce the vulnerability of the structures by using subsidence-proof designs.     

Development and morphometry of sinkholes in coastal plains of Apulia, southern Italy. Preliminary sinkhole susceptibility assessment

Evolution of coastlines in karst areas may be strongly controlled by dissolution processes which favour the development of surface and subsurface landforms. The generation of caves in these environments is commonly favoured by the mixing between fresh and brackish waters. The sinkholes resulting from the upward propagation of the caves may interfere with the anthropogenic environment and cause damage to human elements (property and activities). To highlight the often underestimated importance of karst phenomena in coastal areas, we have analyzed a coastal stretch of Apulia, in southern Italy. The study area, covering an extension of about 6 km², is situated in the Ionian coast, and presents several interesting karst landforms that are generally connected to caves. Tens of sinkholes were mapped through field surveys, multi-year aerial-photographs (dating back to the 1940s) and archival research. We have performed a morphometric analysis of the sinkholes. The analysis describes the main parameters of the sinkholes (area, length, width, and depth), and the control exerted by the main discontinuity systems in the area. The detrimental effects derived from interaction between human environment and these karst landforms is also under consideration. A sinkhole susceptibility map, which may provide useful information for planners, developers and the insurance industry has eventually been produced through application of a decision tree model.