Numerical simulation of turbulent convective flow over wavy terrain

By means of a large-eddy simulation, the convective boundary layer is investigated for flows over wavy terrain. The lower surface varies sinusoidally in the downstream direction while remaining constant in the other. Several cases are considered with amplitude up to 0.15H and wavelength ofH to 8H, whereH is the mean fluid-layer height. At the lower surface, the vertical heat flux is prescribed to be constant and the momentum flux is determined locally from the Monin-Obukhov relationship with a roughness lengthz _o=10^–4 H. The mean wind is varied between zero and 5w _*, wherew _* is the convective velocity scale. After rather long times, the flow structure shows horizontal scales up to 4H, with a pattern similar to that over flat surfaces at corresponding shear friction. Weak mean wind destroys regular spatial structures induced by the surface undulation at zero mean wind. The surface heating suppresses mean-flow recirculation-regions even for steep surface waves. Short surface waves cause strong drag due to hydrostatic and dynamic pressure forces in addition to frictional drag. The pressure drag increases slowly with the mean velocity, and strongly with /H. The turbulence variances increase mainly in the lower half of the mixed layer forU/w _*>2.     

The UHF wind profiler at Vienna airport – data quality control and comparisons to rawinsonde data

Summary A 1290MHz wind profiler (Radian Lap-3000), at present one of three operational wind profilers in Austria, is operated at Vienna airport. In spite of quality assurance procedures as consensus averaging included in the data evaluation process from profiler raw data, some spurious peaks of wind speed and unrealistic changes of the wind vector in time or height occur in the wind measurements. This is especially true for sampling intervals of only 5 minutes which are used to resolve the temporal evolution of summer thunderstorms and frontal passages. Averaging periods of only a few minutes are rather the lower limit apt for wind profiler observations and result in a low data availability of 28%, whereas about 55% of data (relative to the maximum height range according to the parameter setting) are available for 10 to 30 minutes profiles.Approaches to a posteriori quality control using checks for automatic error detection are proposed and tested on a one and a half year data-set: Flagging data when the three-dimensional wind divergence exceeds a predefined limit (0.5s^–1) is in most cases successful in combination with thresholds for wind speed (2 times the median of the daily data-set) or wind shear (0.2s^–1).The wind profiler data is compared to wind profiles from the next radiosonde station where soundings are launched 4 times a day at Hohe Warte, approx. 20km northwest, at the hill-side of the Viennese Woods. Deviations of about 1m s^–1 in wind speed are found between the observations of the two systems. Differences between the wind profiles within the boundary layer can be explained by local differences in the wind regime observed at the airport and the radiosounding – blocking effects of the Viennese Woods during south-easterly flow. Comparing the profiler data to radiosoundings on a monthly basis gives a tool to monitor the profiler performance.     

The stably stratified internal boundary layer for steady and diurnally varying offshore flow

A two-dimensional numerical mesoscale model is used to investigate the internal structure and growth of the stably stratified internal boundary layer (IBL) beneath warm, continental air flowing over a cooler sea. Two situations are studied — steady-state and diurnally varying offshore flow. In the steady-state case, vertical profiles of mean quantities and eddy diffusion coefficients (K) within the IBL show small, but significant, changes with increasing distance from the coast. The top of the IBL is well defined, with large vertical gradients within the layer and a maximum in the coast-normal wind component near the top. Well away from the coast, turbulence, identified by non-zero K, decreases to insignificant levels near the top of the IBL; the IBL itself is characterised by a critical value of the layer-flux Richardson number equal to 0.18. The overall behaviour of the mean profiles is similar to that found in the horizontally homogeneous stable boundary layer over land.A simple physical model is used to relate the depth of the layer h to several relevant physical parameters viz., x, the distance from the coast and U, the large-scale wind (both normal to the coastline) and g/, being the temperature difference between continental mixed-layer air and sea surface, is the mean potential temperature and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Excellent agreement with the numerical results is found, with h = 0.014x ^1/2 U (g/)^–1/2.In the diurnally varying case, the mean profiles within the IBL show only small differences from the steady-state case, although diurnal variations, particularly in the wind maximum, are evident within a few hundred kilometres of the coast. A mesoscale circulation normal to the coast, and superimposed upon the mean offshore flow, develops seawards of the coastline with maximum vertical velocities about sunset, of depth about 2 km and horizontal scale 500 km. The circulation is related to the advection, and subsequent decay, of daytime convective turbulence over the sea.     

ASCAT近岸风场产品与近岸浮标观测风场对比

利用美国西海岸7个近岸浮标2012年全年和中国近岸8个气象浮标2012年1—6月的风场观测数据,检验了卫星散射计ASCAT近岸风场产品中的风速和风向在近岸海域的精度。检验结果表明:在美国西海岸近岸海域,ASCAT近岸风场产品中的风速与浮标的风速一致性高,但ASCAT近岸风场产品中风向的精度受离岸距离、风速和风向等因素的影响,在离岸近的海域ASCAT近岸风场产品与浮标观测风场的一致性较差。统计发现,将低风速 (不超过3 m·s-1) 剔除可明显提高ASCAT近岸风场产品在近岸海域的精度。另外,ASCAT近岸风场产品的风向精度在不同风向上存在差异,表现为从陆地吹向海洋风向精度较小,而从海洋吹向陆地风向精度较高。在中国近岸海域,受地形影响,渤海海域ASCAT近岸风场产品与气象浮标观测的风向差异大,在其他近岸海域的ASCAT近岸风场产品和气象浮标的观测风场的对比结果与美国西海岸风场的对比结果特征相似。     

The dependence of the measured cool skin of the ocean on wind stress and total heat flux

The temperature drop T between the ocean surface and the 5-cm depth was recorded during GATE, Phase III. With measured values of the total heat flux Q and an assumption about the thickness of the viscous boundary layer of the ocean, the wind-speed dependence of the factor of proportionality between T and Q is determined. This factor depends on the deviations of the thickness of the conductive layer from the thickness of the viscous layer and possibly partially on the wind stress. A further assumption about the thickness of the conductive layer leads to a wind-speed dependence of the ratio between total wind stress and its wave supporting part of it. This ratio increases from a value 1.5 at 1 m s^–1 to 9 at 10 m s^–1, which is in agreement with existing estimates.     

A method of determining optimum scales for averaging the earth's topography in quantitative studies of atmospheric cyclo- and anti-cyclogenesis

A method for optimum modelling of the earth's topography, corresponding to differing meteorological phenomena, is presented.The optimum averaging scale for mountains in terms of orographic cyclo- and anti-cyclogenesis is shown to be of the order of 150 km. The use of larger or smaller averaging scales decreases the correlation between the degree of cyclo- and anti-cyclogenesis and the parameters which describe the orography.A quantitative relation between orographic cyclo- and anti-cyclogenesis and the form of orography determined by the Laplacian ² Z ₀ of the terrain function Z ₀ = Z ₀(x, y) is presented.     

Eddy flux measurements over the ocean and related transfer coefficients

Eddy correlation measurements of vertical turbulent fluxes made during AMTEX 1975 are used to assess the reliability of flux prediction from established bulk transfer relations, using both surface-layer and planetary boundary-layer formulations. The surface-layer formulae predict momentum and latent heat fluxes to an accuracy comparable to the direct eddy correlation method, using transfer coefficients of C _DN (at 10m and in neutral conditions) increasing with wind speed, and a constant C _EN - 1.5 × 10 ^–3 . The data suggest C _CHN , for sensible heat, increases significantly with wind speed and is on average 30% lower than C _CEN The boundary-layer drag coefficient, C _GD , agrees within about 40% of recently published values using a vertically averaged geostrophic wind to the height of the lowest temperature inversion, corrected for trajectory curvature. Values of _* / from which C _CGH is derived, are in excellent agreement if the published values are modified to account for inappropriate surface temperatures used in their derivation. Preliminary values of C _GE are also presented.     

Climatic interpretation of the recently extended Vostok ice records

A new ice core drilled at the Russian station of Vostok in Antarctica reached 2755 m depth in September 1993. At this depth, the glaciological time scale provides an age of 260 ky BP (±25). We refine this estimate using records of dust and deuterium in the ice and of ¹⁸O of O₂ in the entrapped air. ¹⁸O of O₂ is highly correlated with insolation over the last two climatic cycles if one assumes that the EGT chronology overestimates the increase of age with depth by 12% for ages older than 112 ky BP. This modified age-depth scale gives an age of 244 ky BP at 2755 m depth and agrees well with the age-depth scale of Walbroeck et al. (in press) derived by orbital tuning of the Vostok D record. We discuss the temperature interpretation of this latter record accounting for the influence of the origin of the ice and using information derived from deuterium-excess data. We conclude that the warmest period of stage 7 was likely as warm as today in Antarctica. A remarkable feature of the Vostok record is the high level of similarity of proxy temperature records for the last two climatic cycles (stages 6 and 7 versus stages 1–5). This similarity has no equivalent in other paleorecords.     

The wind regime in coastal areas with special reference to results obtained from the Swedish wind energy program

The paper describes various aspects of the wind regime in coastal areas as obtained from several experimental programs along the Baltic coast of Sweden. The studies include the change with distance inland of mean wind structure as well as the turbulence structure in various conditions. It is found that wind spectra are usually well described by local similarity in its high frequency part, even in complex terrain. The low frequency parts of the spectra show clear spectral lag effects. The effects of a small slope, ca 5 m height change over 300 m travel distance, is clearly seen in some spectra, and it is shown that current flow over a hill theory can be used to account for it. The change of mean wind speed throughout the entire boundary layer as the wind passes a low but wooded island (Gotland), ca 30 km wide, has been studied in a series of relatively strong wind, near neutral cases. Some unexpected features are found; in particular the wind speed decreases more rapidly with distance inland than predicted by current numerical models. Two cases with a low level jet are discussed in some detail. Arguments are presented for the phenomenon to be caused by frictional decoupling at the Latvian coast, about 200 km upwind — the jet being thus an analogy in space to the classical Blackadar nocturnal jet frequently observed in continental areas.     

The Askervein Hill Project: Mean wind variations at fixed heights above ground

This is one of a series of papers on the Askervein Hill Project. It presents results on the variations in mean wind speed at fixed heights (z) above the ground from linear arrays of anemometer posts and towers. Most of the data are for z = 10 m but some are for z = 3 m. Selected and directionally grouped data from the 55 Mean Flow runs are presented together with mean flow data from Askervein '83 Turbulence runs. Comparisons are made between the data and guideline estimates of fractional speed-up ratio at hilltop locations and between the data and MS3DJH/3 model predictions along the tower lines. There is good agreement in most cases.     

Sea surface winds derived from cloud motion vectors over the tropical Atlantic

The relationship between satellite-derived low-level cloud motion, surface wind and geostrophic wind vectors is examined using GATE data. In the trades, surface wind speeds can be derived from cloud motion vectors by the linear relation: V = 0.62 V _s + 1.9 m s^–1 with a mean scatter of ±1.3 m s^–1. The correlation coefficient between surface and satellite wind speed is 0.25. Considering baroclinicity, i.e., the influence of the thermal wind, the correlation coefficient does not increase, because of the uncertainty of the thermal wind vectors. The ratios of surface to geostrophic wind speed and surface to satellite wind speed are 0.7 and 0.8, respectively, with a statistical uncertainty of ±0.3. Calculations of the ratio of surface to geostrophic wind speed on the basis of the resistance law yield V/V _g = 0.8 ± 0.2, in agreement with experimental results. The mean angle difference between the surface and the satellite wind vectors amounts to - 18 °, taking into account baroclinicity. This value is in good agreement with the mean ageostrophic angle - 25 °.     

Markov chain simulations of vertical dispersion in the neutral surface layer for surface and elevated releases

Vertical dispersion in the neutral surface layer is investigated using a Markov Chain simulation procedure. The conceptual basis of the procedure is discussed and computation procedures outlined. Wind and turbulence parameterizations appropriate to the neutral surface layer are considered with emphasis on the Lagrangian time scale. Computations for a surface release are compared with field data. Good agreement is found for the variation of surface concentration and cloud height to distances 500 m downwind of the source. The functional form of the vertical concentration profile is examined and an exponential with exponent 1.6 is found to give the best fit with simulations.For elevated releases, it is demonstrated that an initial dip of the mass mean height from the simulation can be normalized for various release heights using a non-dimensionalized downwind coordinate incorporating advective wind speed and wind shear. The vertical distribution standard deviation ( _z ), as employed in Gaussian models, shows a fair degree of independence with source height but close examination reveals an optimum source height for maximum _z at a given downwind distance,x. This source height increases with downwind distance. Also the simulations indicate that vertical wind shear is more important than vertical variation of Lagrangian time scale close to the source, with a reverse effect farther downwind.     

Characteristics of Spatiotemporal Distribution of Sea Surface Wind along the East Coast of Guangdong Province

We analyzed the frequency distribution characteristics of wind speeds occurring at different offshore sites within a range of 0–200 km based on the sea surface wind data captured via buoys and oil platforms located along the east coast of Guangdong Province. The results of the analysis showed that average wind speed measured for each station reached a maximum in winter while minima occurred in summer, corresponding to obvious seasonal variation, and average wind speed increased with offshore distance. The prevailing wind direction at the nearshore site is the easterly wind, and the frequency of winds within 6–10 m s^–1 is considerable with that of winds at > 10 m s^–1. With the increase of the offshore distance, the winds were less affected by the land, and the prevailing wind direction gradually became northerly winds, predominately those at > 10 m s^–1. For areas of shorter offshore distance (< 100 km), surface wind speeds fundamentally conformed to a two-parameter Weibull distribution, but there was a significant difference between wind speed probability distributions and the Weibull distribution in areas more than 100 km offshore. The mean wind speeds and wind speed standard deviations increased with the offshore distance, indicating that with the increase of the wind speed, the pulsation of the winds increased obviously, resulting in an increase in the ratio of the mean wind speed to the standard deviation of wind speed. When the ratio was large, the skewness became negative. When a relatively great degree of dispersion was noted between the observed skewness and the skewness corresponding to the theoretical Weibull curve, the wind speed probability distribution could not be adequately described by a Weibull distribution. This study provides a basis for the verification of the adaptability of Weibull distribution in different sea areas.     

2019年广西临桂微下击暴流和广东湛江龙卷现场灾情调查对比分析

2019年3月21日21:13广西桂林市临桂区国家气象观测站测得60.3 m·s-1的瞬时极大风速,2019年4月13日14:11广东湛江市徐闻县下属和安镇镇政府自动气象站测得50.7 m·s-1的瞬时极大风速,两地均出现比较明显的风灾.通过分析监控视频、无人机航拍资料、现场勘察和走访目击者,获得如下结论:21:09-...     

Regional Advection Perturbations in an Irrigated Desert (RAPID) experiment

Summary The RAPID field experiment took place in August–September 1999 at a site 25km south of Twin Falls, Idaho, USA. The experiment concerned micrometeorological observations over extensive, well-irrigated fields covered with the fast-growing crop alfalfa. During daytime, on a number of days the sensible heat flux was negative and the latent heat flux exceeded net radiation. The energy required for the latent heat flux to be larger than net radiation has to be advected from elsewhere. As the fields were large, we refer to this process as regional advection. Local advection, on the other hand, refers to advection effects, where the wet to dry transition is on a field scale. Evidence is presented that the RAPID data are subject to regional advection conditions.A simple model, based on Penman-Monteith, is derived that describes the regional-advection case rather well. The influence of wind speed under those conditions is illustrated using data and the model. The correlation coefficients between temperature and horizontal wind component appear to be good indicators for advection.     

MCC and gull flight behavior

Wintertime observations of mesoscale cellular convection (MCC) over the East China Sea have resulted in criteria that have a remarkable similarity to those reported by Woodcock (1975) in the study of thermals and gull flight behavior. It has been determined that the surface wind speed (V) and the air-sea temperature difference (T) prescribe unique and compatible conditons for both the occurrence of MCC and soaring by sea gulls. Specifically, the onset of MCC when V is between 5 and 9 m s^–1 is inversely proportional to T in the range 5 to 7 °C. Elsewhere, the onset of MCC occurs under conditions of direct proportionality between V and T. Necessary conditions for the occurrence of MCC due to heating from below are T 5 °C and V 5 m s^–1. The boundaries of the convective regime for MCC are discussed and interpreted in accordance with the regime for sea-gull soaring and similarity concepts.     

Cross-Spectrum of Wind Speed for Meso-Gamma Scales in the Upper Surface Layer over South-Eastern Australia

Analytical expressions for the cross-spectrum of wind speed are developed for the stochastic simulation of wind power in south-eastern Australia. The expressions are valid for heights above the ground in the range 40–80 m, site separations of 1–30 km, and frequencies of (1/6)–3 cycles h⁻¹. The influence of site separation distance is taken into account, as are variables that are defined for blocks of time. These variables include the mean and standard deviation of wind speed and the mean wind direction. The parameters of the model equations are determined by non-linear least-squares regression with cross-validation over 10 years of wind measurements from 84 towers in south-eastern Australia.     

Estimates of diabatic wind speed profiles from near-surface weather observations

In this paper we analyse diabatic wind profiles observed at the 213 m meteorological tower at Cabauw, the Netherlands. It is shown that the wind speed profiles agree with the well-known similarity functions of the atmospheric surface layer, when we substitute an effective roughness length. For very unstable conditions, the agreement is good up to at least 200 m or z/L–7(z is height, L is Obukhov length scale). For stable conditions, the agreement is good up to z/L1. For stronger stability, a semi-empirical extension is given of the log-linear profile, which gives acceptable estimates up to ~ 100 m. A scheme is used for the derivation of the Obukhov length scale from single wind speed, total cloud cover and air temperature. With the latter scheme and the similarity functions, wind speed profiles can be estimated from near-surface weather data only. The results for wind speed depend on height and stability. Up to 80 m, the rms difference with observations is on average 1.1 m s^–1. At 200 m, 0.8 m s^–1 for very unstable conditions increasing to 2.1 m s^–1 for very stable conditions. The proposed methods simulate the diurnal variation of the 80 m wind speed very well. Also the simulated frequency distribution of the 80 m wind speed agrees well with the observed one. It is concluded that the proposed methods are applicable up to at least 100 m in generally level terrain.     

Full-scale measurements of the wind regime over a saddle,and correlation with wind-tunnel tests

The Gebbies Pass region consists of a saddle at a height of approximately 300 m, bounded by two ranges of hills approximately 500 m high. A survey technique which yielded mean wind speeds at a height of 10 m in this region is shown to provide excellent reproducibility for data collected 6 months apart. The survey results are also shown to correlate extremely well with those obtained from a 1:4000 scale model analysed in a Planetary Boundary Layer wind tunnel.Wind structure information obtained upstream of the saddle and at its crest is presented and compared with the wind tunnel model and other studies where possible. The velocity profile was measured up to 160 m at the crest and was found to be almost vertical; however, there was a noticeable jet at the 15 m height, which was not apparent on the model. Measurements at 10 m height showed a velocity increase of 40–60% at the crest compared to the approach terrain velocity at the same height above ground level. The longitudinal r.m.s. turbulence component _u was found to increase at the saddle but still resulted in reduced turbulence intensity values relative to the upstream situation. The longitudinal component of the energy spectrum at the upwind site was in excellent agreement with the theoretical model proposed by Kaimal et al. (1972). However, at the saddle crest the theoretical spectrum was too high and required further modification to fit the measured data. It is proposed that a terrain factor be used to make the necessary adjustment since the theoretical spectra are strictly only valid for flat homogeneous terrain.     

The horizontal distribution of space correlation coefficients of wind fluctuations in the atmospheric surface layer

The horizontal distribution of space correlation coefficients of wind fluctuations was investigated in the atmospheric surface layer. The observational network of wind sensors was arranged to form a two-dimensional extension in the horizontal plane. The shape of the distribution of the correlation coefficients was approximated by a group of concentric ellipses; streamwise and lateral integral scales were estimated as 75 m and 25 m, respectively. Taylor's frozen eddy hypothesis was tested using streamwise and time integral scales.