Gravel accumulation in deposits of viscous debris flows with hyper-concentration

According to the observational data of viscous debris flows with hyper-concentration, debris flows can be classified into three types： high-viscous, viscous, and sub-viscous debris flows. Distinct formation mechanism of different graded bedding structures in deposits of viscous debris flows was analyzed in this paper by using their yield-stress ratio and flow plug ratio. This paper specially analyzed the effect of Weissenberg which the gravels in squirm condition of hyper-concentration viscous flows would tend to move vertically, and the formation mechanism of the gravels accumulated at surface was also studied. The analysis in this paper can establish a foundation for the studies on differentiation of bedding structures of debris flow deposits and studies on dynamic parameters of debris flows.     

琼东南盆地陵水凹陷北部梅山组砂质碎屑流沉积特征及油气地质意义

通过岩心描述以及粒度、薄片资料的综合分析，结合区域古地貌特征、地震相研究成果，详细论述了琼东南盆地陵水凹陷北部梅山组砂质碎屑流砂岩沉积构造特征及识别标志，并在此基础上建立了研究区砂质碎屑流沉积模式。研究区梅山组砂质碎屑流砂岩主要为厚层块状构造粉砂岩-极细砂岩以及具有丰富同生变形构造的粉砂质泥岩、泥岩与粉砂岩互层2种岩性组合，成因为陆架坡折之上的三角洲前缘、前三角洲沉积物发生整体性"冻结"滑动、滑塌再沉积所形成，其平面分布主要受陆架坡折所控制，大致呈平行于陆架坡折带分布的舌形形态。结合区域油气成藏要素研究认为研究区砂质碎屑流砂岩可通过沟源断层沟通深部烃源岩，形成下生上储型岩性油气藏，为琼东南盆地大中型油气藏勘探突破的重点领域。      

歧口凹陷中部沙一下亚段异重流沉积识别特征与控制因素分析

分析陆相断陷湖盆异重流沉积的识别特征、异重流水下扇沉积体系的横向、垂向沉积序列、以及不同物源碎屑成因的异重流的沉积差异性, 从而探讨陆相断陷湖盆中异重流沉积的控制因素。以歧口凹陷沙一下异重流沉积为研究对象, 对研究区钻井岩心、测录井、地震属性以及粒度分析资料进行综合分析。结果表明, 研究区异重流具有3种典型沉积识别特征: ①两类沉积序列, 分别为下部逆粒序、上部正粒序的纺锤状二元结构沉积序列以及厚度较大且粒度特征变化不明显的均一结构沉积序列; ②粒度分析特征以递变悬浮载荷为主, 累计概率曲线类型以复杂多段式、上拱曲线式、低斜率两段式为特征; ③岩相特征为侵蚀充填沉积、广泛发育且类型多样的层理构造, 其次为陆源褐红色泥质层、褐红色泥砾以及大量的植物茎干碎片和炭质碎屑。研究区异重流沉积接受多支物源供给表现出水道化特征, 葛沽物源为最主要物源, 总体具有长距离搬运、多个朵体发育、大范围沿路沉积等特征。建立了研究区扇三角洲和辫状河三角洲物源重力流沉积模式。断陷湖盆背景下异重流沉积的控制因素为古物源、古地貌、古气候3个方面, 异重流沉积是断陷湖盆中广泛发育的沉积类型, 其中异重流水道砂岩具有良好的储集物性, 是陆相断陷湖盆油气勘探的重要方向与突破点。      

论辽河群层序的有序性

从排列顺序、基本地层单位、稳定的岩性变化面或标志层、相变、层控矿床、褶皱构造六个方面分析,表明辽河群层序是有序的。辽河群遭受三次变形,即:下降阶段的下部构造层次的变形,有压扁作用和重结晶作用,形成广域流劈理和区域变质岩;上升阶段的中间构造层次(A)的变形,有重力滑动形成的不协调褶皱、顺层剪切形成的韧性剪切带与层内(片内)褶皱和水平拉张形成的拉伸线理与线状构造;褶皱阶段的中间构造层次(B)的变形,有局部出现劈理的平行褶皱与相似褶皱并存,伴生有逆冲型韧性剪切带和逆冲-推覆构造。这种两次垂直运动变形和一次水平挤压运动变形的构造模式是决定辽河群层序有序性的构造基础。流劈理不是拉伸、轴面片理、多期构造作用的构造置换等成因机制形成的,而是在垂直压扁下化学成因的产物,可称顺层片理或构造层理。流劈理的成因机制是讨论辽河群层序有序性的核心问题。     

Spatial-temporal distribution of debris flow impact pressure on rigid barrier

Grain composition plays a vital role in impact pressure of debris flow. Current approaches treat debris flow as uniform fluid and almost ignore its granular effects. A series of flume experiments have been carried out to explore the granular influence on the impact process of debris flow by using a contact surface pressure gauge sensor(Tactilus~?, produced by Sensor Products LLC). It is found that the maximum impact pressure for debris flow of low density fluctuates drastically with a long duration time while the fluctuation for flow of high density is short in time, respectively presenting logarithmic and linear form in longitudinal attenuation. This can be ascribed to the turbulence effect in the former and grain collisions and grainfluid interaction in the latter. The horizontal distribution of the impact pressure can be considered as the equivalent distribution. For engineering purposes, the longitudinal distribution of the pressure can be generalized to a triangular distribution, from which a new impact method considering granular effects is proposed.     

辽东半岛南部印支造山旋回早期的顺层滑脱构造

辽东半岛南部发育于太古宙基底与青白口系盖层邻接部位的大型韧性剪切带与盖层内顺层固态流变形成的构造群体,是印支造山旋回开始时,在主要来自太平洋方面的构造力驱动下,以盖层与基底的不整合面为主滑脱面发生自东向西近水平多层系顺层剪切滑脱的产物, 称顺层滑脱构造。大范围的顺层滑脱未引起大规模的褶皱—逆冲推覆;同时,主滑脱面也不同于伸展拆离断层。顺层滑脱构造形成后先后被南北向（Ｔ３ —Ｊ１） 和东西向（Ｊ２ —Ｊ３） 等褶皱断裂系叠加改造;基底在晚白垩世的断块运动中大幅度抬升。顺层滑脱构造应该是长期沉降的沉积盆地在进入造山旋回时（ 主褶皱前） 可能出现的构造型式。     

鄂尔多斯盆地南部彬长区块延长组长6-长7段深水重力流沉积特征分析

鄂尔多斯盆地南部彬长区块的延长组长6-长7段发育厚层无沉积构造的块状砂岩,具有良好的油气显示和开发效益,然而关于该套砂岩的形成机制尚不清晰。确定长6-长7段砂岩的沉积相及沉积模式,对于该套低渗砂岩储层"甜点"形成机制的理解,"甜点"分布模式的预测,以及后续勘探开发都具有重要的指导意义。对彬长区块36口取心井的长6-长7段1 024 m长的岩心进行了沉积学特征描述,结合粒度分析资料及地质制图分析,确定了该套厚层砂岩的沉积相及沉积模式。结果表明:鄂尔多斯盆地南部彬长区块的延长组长6-长7段砂岩共发育15种岩相和3种主要沉积微相类型,即:砂质碎屑流、浊积岩和震积滑塌岩微相,以及它们在空间上的3类组合关系。其深水重力流沉积模式可以概括为扇根（坡折带斜坡上半部分）的震积滑塌相-砂质碎屑流亚相（沉积组合）、扇中（斜坡中下部位-坡脚）的砂质碎屑流-浊积岩沉积亚相（沉积组合）和扇端（坡脚-盆底）浊积砂等亚相（沉积组合）。通过对彬长区块延长组长6-长7段发育的致密砂岩沉积特征的分析与讨论,确定了该厚层块状砂岩的主要沉积相及沉积微相的特征及分布,为致密砂岩储层的高效开发及"甜点"预测提供了科学依据与良好借鉴。      

Dynamics of loose granular flow and its subsequent deposition in a narrow mountainous river

A large amount of loose debris materials were deposited on the slope of mountainous areas after the 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake. During and after the earthquake, these loose debris deposits collapsed and slide into valleys or rivers, changing river sediment supply condition and channel morphology. To investigate the mechanisms of granular flow and deposition, the dynamics of slope failure and sediment transportation in typical mountainous rivers of different intersection angles were analyzed with a coupling model of Computational Fluid Dynamics and Discrete Element Method(CFD-DEM). The numerical results show that the change of intersection angle between the granular flow flume and the river channel can affect the deposit geometry and the fluid flow field significantly. As the intersection angle increases, the granular velocity perpendicular to the river channel increases, while the granular velocity parallel to the river channel decreases gradually. Compared to the test of dry granular flow, the CFD-DEM coupling tests show much higher granular velocity and larger volume of sediments entrained in the river. Due to the river flow, particles located at the edge of the deposition will move downstream gradually and the main section of sediments deposition moves from the center to the edge of the river channel. As a result, sediment supply in the downstream river will distribute unevenly. Under the erosion of fluid flow, the proportion of fine particles increases, while the proportion of coarse particles decreases gradually in the sediment deposition. The build-up of accumulated sediment mass will cause a significant increase in water level in the river channel, thus creating serious flooding hazard in mountainous rivers.     

Application of shallow high-resolution transient electromagnetic method( TEM) in geological investigation of debris flow

In the investigation of debris flow, the detection of the source area of the post-disaster debris flow is an important basis for evaluating the distribution of the debris flow accumulation layer and the subsequent control. In this paper, a shallow high-resolution TEM is used to detect the debris flow source area in Dashigou village, Yongji County, Jilin Province. The purpose of this investigation is to determine the depth range of debris flow damage. The detection results show that there is an obvious low resistance zone at about 10 m depth along the survey line, which is in good agreement with the drilling data and the high density electrical detection. It is proved that the depth is the maximum impact depth of the debris flow. The practical engineering proves that the method has high resolution in shallow layer detection, high efficiency and convenience in field acquisition. The maximum detection depth range of this method is 30--40 m, which meets the requirements of high efficiency and accurate detection for regional debris flow source area, and has high practical application value.     

A catastrophic debris flow in the Wenchuan Earthquake area,July 2013: characteristics,formation, and risk reduction

In the Wenchuan Earthquake area,many co-seismic landslides formed blocking-dams in debris flow channels. This blocking and bursting of landslide dams amplifies the debris flow scale and results in severe catastrophes. The catastrophic debris flow that occurred in Qipan gully(Wenchuan,Southwest China) on July 11,2013 was caused by intense rainfall and upstream cascading bursting of landslide dams. To gain an understanding of the processes of dam bursting and subsequent debris flow scale amplification effect,we attempted to estimate the bursting debris flow peak discharges along the main gully and analyzed the scale amplification process. The results showed that the antecedent and triggering rainfalls for 11 July debris flow event were 88.0 mm and 21.6 mm,respectively. The event highlights the fact that lower rainfall intensity can trigger debris flows after the earthquake. Calculations of the debris flow peak discharge showed that the peak discharges after the dams-bursting were 1.17–1.69 times greater than the upstream peak discharge. The peak discharge at the gully outlet reached 2553 m~3/s which was amplified by 4.76 times in comparison with the initial peak discharge in the upstream. To mitigate debris flow disasters,a new drainage channel with a trapezoidal V-shaped cross section was proposed. The characteristic lengths(h1 and h2) under optimal hydraulic conditions were calculated as 4.50 m and 0.90 m,respectively.     

准中4区块侏罗系头屯河组滩坝及风暴沉积特征

在准噶尔盆地中部(简称准中)4区块侏罗系岩心观察的基础上,考虑粒度分析、薄片镜下观察及古气候恢复成果,认为该区头屯河组沉积时期发育滨浅湖滩坝沉积;以典型风暴沉积构造的识别为基础,提出一种与滩坝相伴生出现的新的风暴岩类型——滨浅湖风暴岩,并建立理想垂向序列模型,自下至上依次为:递变、块状层段(Sa),平行层段、冲洗交错层段(Sb),波状层段(Sc);断续纹层段(Sd)和滨浅湖泥岩段(Se).该类风暴岩发育在正常浪基面之上的滨浅湖地区,与半深湖风暴岩相比,更易遭受后期波浪改造而难以完整保存;因其发育的平面位置不同,滨浅湖风暴岩序列顶底的沉积物可以是氧化色调的滨浅湖泥坪沉积物或是正常的滨浅湖滩坝沉积物.滨浅湖风暴岩的提出完善了滨浅湖滩坝沉积体系,为研究区古地理、古气候特征的恢复提供线索,为滩坝的成因和沉积环境研究提供思路,对准噶尔盆地隐蔽油气藏的勘探具有一定指导意义.     

Two-dimensional numerical model for debris flows in the Jiangjia Gully, Yunnan Province

Debris flows are recurrent natural hazards in many mountainous regions.This paper presents a numerical study on the propagation of debris flows in natural erodible open channels,in which the bed erosion and sedimentation processes are important.Based on the Bingham fluid theory,a mathematical model of the two-dimensional non-constant debris flow is developed.The governing equations include the continuity and momentum conservation equations of debris flow,the sediment convection-diffusion equation,the bed erosion-deposition equation and the bed-sediment size gradation adjustment equation.The yield stress and shear stress components are included to describe the dynamic rheological properties.The upwind control-volume Finite Volume Method (FVM) is applied to discretize the convection terms.The improved SIMPLE algorithm with velocity-free-surface coupled correction is developed to solve the equations on non-orthogonal,quadrilateral grids.The model is applied to simulate a debris flow event in Jiangjia Gully,Yunnan Province and to predict the flow pattern and bed erosion-deposition processes.The results show the effectiveness of the proposed numercial model in debris flow simulation and potential hazard analysis.     

Prediction of debris-flow danger area by combining hydrological and inundation simulation methods

Debris flows have caused serious human casualties and economic losses in the regions strongly affected by the Ms8.0 Wenchuan earthquake of 2008. Debris flow mitigation and risk assessment is a key issue for reconstruction.The existing methods of inundation simulation are based on historical disasters and have no power of prediction.The rain-flood method can not yield detailed flow hydrograph and does not meet the need of inundation simulation. In this paper,the process of water flow was studied by using the Arc-SCS model combined with hydraulic method,and then the debris flow runoff process was calculated using the empirical formula combining the result from Arc-SCS.The peak discharge and runoff duration served as input of inundation simulation. Then,the dangerous area is predicted using kinematic wave method and Manning equation.Taking the debris flow in Huashiban gully in Beichuan County,Sichuan Province,China on 24 Sep.2008 as example,the peak discharge of water flow and debris flow were calculated as 35.52 m3·s-1 and 215.66 m3·s-,with error of 4.15%compared to the measured values.The simulated area of debris-flow deposition was 161,500 m2,vs.the measured area of 144,097 m2,in error of 81.75%.The simulated maximum depth was 12.3 m,consistent with the real maximum depth between 10 and 15 m according to the field survey.The minor error is mainly due to the flow impact on buildings and variations in cross-section configuration.The present methodology can be applied to predict debris flow magnitude and evaluate its risk in other watersheds inthe earthquake area.     

Characteristics, causes and mitigation of catastrophic debris flow hazard on 21 July 2011 at the Longda Watershed of Songpan County, China

Debris flow is a common natural hazard in the mountain areas of Western China due to favorable natural conditions,and also exacerbated by mountainous exploitation activities.This paper concentrated on the characteristics,causes and mitigation of a catastrophic mine debris flow hazard at Longda Watershed in Songpan County,Sichuan Province,on 21 July 2011.This debris flow deposited in the front of the No.1 dam,silted the drainage channel for flood and then rushed into tailing sediment reservoir in the main channel and made the No.2 dam breached.The outburst debris flow blocked Fu River,formed dammed lake and generated outburst flood,which delivered heavy metals into the lower reaches of Fu River,polluted the drink water source of the population of over 1 million.The debris flow was characterized with a density of 1.87~2.15 t/m 3 and a clay content of less than 1.63%.The peak velocity and flux at Longda Gully was over 10.0~10.9 m/s and 429.0~446.0 m 3 /s,respectively,and the flux was about 700 m 3 /s in main channel,equaling to the flux of the probability of 1%.About 330,000m 3 solid materials was transported by debris flow and deposited in the drainage tunnel(120,000~130,000 m 3),the front of No.1 dam(100,000 m 3) and the mouth of the watershed(100,000~110,000 m 3),respectively.When the peak flux and magnitude of debris flow was more than 462 m 3 /s and 7,423 m 3,respectively,it would block Fu River and produce a hazard chain which was composed of debris flow,dammed lake and outburst flood.Furthermore,the 21 July large-scale debris flow was triggered by rainstorm with an intensity of 21.2 mm/0.5 h and the solid materials of debris flow were provided by landslides,slope deposits,mining wastes and tailing sediments.The property losses were mainly originated from the silting of the drainage tunnel for flash flood but not for debris flow and the irrational location of tailing sediment reservoir.Therefore,the mitigation measures for mine debris flows were presented:(1) The disastrous debris flow watershed should be identified in planning period and prohibited from being taken as the site of mining factories;(2) The mining facilities are constructed at the safe areas or watersheds;(3) Scoria plots,concentrator factory and tailing sediment reservoir are constructed in safe areas where the protection measures be easily made against debris flows;(4) The appropriate system and plan of debris flow mitigation including monitoring,remote monitoring and early-warning and emergency plan is established;(5) The stability of waste dump and tailing sediment reservoir are monitored continuously to prevent mining debris flows.     

Annual precipitation gray forecast in disaster year of Chedaren debris flow

The Chedaren ravine belongs to high-prone areas of debris flow in Jilin Province,which threaten the local people's life and security seriously. The authors used the residual correction theory to amend the GM (1, 1) model and forecast annual precipitation in disaster year of the Chedaren ravine; it provides scientific foundation for early warning of debris flow disaster in the rainy season based on weather forecast. The prediction results show that annual precipitation is 724.7 mm in 2009; the region will probably occur large-scale debris flow during the rainy season.     

The Study on Pyroclastic Deposits in the Longgang Volcanic Swarm, Northeastern China

The Dayizishan scoria cone and Jinlongdingzi scoria cone in the Longgang volcanic swarm, northeastern China are comprised of basaltic fallout tephra that derived from sub - Plinian eruptions. The airborn tephra formed a scoria cone and tephra sheets in geomorphological character. The fallout tephra deposits consist of basaltic scoria, bomb, ultramafic xenolith and lithic fragments. The tephra deposits in the tephra sheets developed plane parallel bedding and graded bedding. The size parameters of tephra changed with distance away from source and the lapse of time regularly.The Dalongwan tuff ring and Longquanlongwan tuff ring in Longgang volcanic swarm are comprised of base surge deposits, formed by phreatomagmatic explosions. The base surge deposits are composed of basaltic lapilli, pisolites and tuff.The sedimentary structure, for instance, dunelike structure, chute and pool structure, U - shaped channel and cross bedding, massive beds and sandwave beds etc. are recognized.     

浅海砂质碎屑流沉积特征与模式: 以莺歌海盆地东方1-1气田莺二段为例

莺歌海盆地东方气田莺二段发育浅海砂质碎屑流,对其沉积特征与模式的研究具有重要意义。从岩心精细描述入手,结合测井曲线特征、地震剖面、地球化学实验,综合国内外重力流研究进展,确定了研究区浅海砂质碎屑流的岩心、测井、地震相特征,并通过分析研究区沉积背景,进一步探讨了东方气田莺二段ⅡL、ⅢU气组浅海砂质碎屑流的沉积模式。研究结果表明:该区砂质碎屑流的岩心相为富漂浮泥岩碎屑的块状砂岩、"泥包砾"等典型砂质碎屑流特征;测井相上表现为齿化现象十分严重的逆粒序漏斗型及无粒序钟型-漏斗型复合型特征;地震相上表现为中振幅平行席状反射和低频平行-亚平行空白反射特征;剖面上呈席状和平缓透镜状展布。研究厘定了研究区砂质碎屑流为西侧三角洲前缘由于风暴作用引起沉积物滑塌再搬运和北侧红河洪水重力流共同作用形成的浅海砂质碎屑流沉积模式。      

龙马溪组层状页岩微观非均质性及力学各向异性特征

层状页岩的微观非均质性及力学各向异性对研究井壁稳定以及水力裂缝扩展形态具有重要意义。为了向页岩优化钻井、压裂工艺参数提供一定的理论和试验依据,对沿不同角度取心的页岩试样开展单轴压缩实验,配合场发射扫描电镜、原子力显微镜观测实验和波速测试等,研究龙马溪组层状页岩微观非均质性及力学各向异性特征,并讨论这些物理力学特征对水力裂缝形态的影响规律。结果表明:受层理面的影响,龙马溪组页岩呈现出较强的微观非均质性和宏观力学各向异性特征。具体的,微观孔隙结构特征方面,随着观测方向与层理方向之间夹角β的增大,微观孔隙结构的发育程度逐渐增加,说明气体的储集和空间呈增加趋势;宏观力学特征方面,单轴压缩条件下,随着加载方向与层理方向间夹角θ的增加,页岩试样的破坏模式从贯穿层理面的张拉破坏,先转变为剪切破坏,再变为劈裂-剪切混合破坏;龙马溪组层状页岩的单轴抗压强度、泊松比随着θ的增加呈现出先减小后增大的"U"形各向异性模式,弹性模量、横纵波速则逐渐减小,胶结程度较弱的页岩层理面会先于基质体发生破坏,进而显著影响岩石整体的力学性质;页岩微观非均质性及力学各向异性特征在一定程度上影响压裂过程中水力裂缝的扩展行为,以及停泵后压裂液的渗流路径。研究结果可为页岩压裂工艺参数优选提供一定依据。      

Experimental study on the energy dissipation characteristics of debris flow deceleration baffles

Debris flow can cause serious damages to roads, bridges, buildings and other infrastructures.Arranging several rows of deceleration baffles in the significant influence on the mobility and deposition characteristic of debris flow. The deposit amount first increased then decreased when the flow density rises,flow path can reduce the flow velocity and ensure better protection of life and property. In debris flow prevention projects, deceleration baffles can effectively reduce the erosion of the debris flow and prolong the running time of the drainage channel.This study investigated the degree to which a 6 m long flume and three rows of deceleration baffles reduce the debris flow velocity and affect the energy dissipation characteristics. The influential variables include channel slope, debris flow density, and spacing between baffle rows. The experimental results demonstrated that the typical flow pattern was a sudden increase in flow depth and vertical proliferation when debris flow flows through the baffles. Strong turbulence between debris flow and baffles can contribute to energy dissipation and decrease the kinematic velocity considerably. The results showed that the reduction ratio of velocity increased with the increase in debris flow density,channel slope and spacing between rows. Tests phenomena also indicated that debris flow density hasand the deposit amount of debris flow density of 1500kg/m~3 reached the maximum when the experimental flume slope is 12°.     

Evolution of the Late Cretaceous Yongfeng-Chongren Basin in Jiangxi Province,southeast China: insights from sedimentary facies analysis and pebble counting

The Gan-Hang Belt in Southeast China is characterized by several igneous and siliciclastic basins associated with crustal extension during Late Mesozoic. The sedimentary evolution of the red basins is still poorly understood. In this study, sedimentary facies analysis and pebble counting were performed on outcrop sections of the Late Cretaceous Guifeng Group in the Yongfeng-Chongren Basin in central Jiangxi Province. Thirty-five conglomerate outcrops were chosen to measure pebble lithology, size, roundness, weathering degree and preferred orientation. Results show that gravels are mostly fine to coarse pebbles and comprise dominantly quartzites, metamorphic rocks, granitoids and sandstones. Rose diagrams based on imbricated pebbles indicate variable paleocurrent directions. Combining with typical sedimentary structures and vertical successions, we suggest that the Guifeng Group were deposited in alluvial fan, river and playa lake depositional systems. The proposed depositional model indicates that the Hekou Formation represents the start-up stage of the faulted basin, accompanied by sedimentation in alluvial fan and braided river environments. Then this basin turned into a stable expansion stage during the deposition of the Tangbian Formation. Except for minor coarse sediments at the basin margin, the other area is covered with fine-grained sediments of lake and river environments. The Lianhe Formation, however, is once again featured by conglomerates, suggesting a probable tectonic event. Therefore, the study region possibly suffered two tectonic events represented by the conglomerates of the Hekou and Lianhe formations in the context of the crustal extension in Southeast China.