利用简化动力学近似分析黑河实验区的感热通量

本文利用简化动力学近似．运用统计和参数化两种方法分析了黑河实验区的感热通量．结果表明：不稳定条件下绿洲区的感热通量与近地面辐射温度(T3)和空气温度(Ta)之差符合幂定律方程；沙漠地区符合形式为H=f[u(T2-Ta)]的幂定律方程。利用从实验得到的热传输附加阻尼表示式kB^-1=0．2u(T2-Ta)用于对空气动力学阻尼(ra)的参数化，可适用于不同下垫面．并得到了比较满意的感热通量值．最后利用以上结果计算了实验区的潜热通量并做了比较分析。     

Radiative surface temperature and energy balance of a wheat canopy

The sensible heat loss from a stand of winter wheat was calculated from radiometric measurements of crop surface temperature, measurements of air temperature, and an atmospheric resistance to momentum transfer; corresponding latent heat flux was obtained through the energy balance equation. These estimates of sensible and latent heat were compared with fluxes from the Bowen Ratio method. When radiative temperature was derived using a measured canopy emissivity of 0.98, calculations of sensible heat flux were systematically 50–100 W m^-2 less than Bowen Ratio values. The two techniques agreed more closely when an apparent emissivity of 0.96 was used with an apparent reflectivity of 0.03. The mean difference between the estimates of latent heat flux was then -16 ± 32 W m^-2.The surface temperature method showed less systematic error in comparison with the Bowen Ratio values than did estimates using the aerodynamic method.On leave from: University of Nottingham, School of Agriculture, Loughborough LE12 5RD.     

Nighttime convection in the interior of a dense Douglas fir forest

Infrared radiative surface temperatures as observed over a dense Douglas fir forest during stable atmospheric conditions are analyzed. It is shown that the concept of a single surface temperature to describe both the thermal coupling and the radiative coupling between atmosphere and forest fails when longwave cooling is large and wind speeds are low. In such cases a decoupling of the radiative surface temperature from the air temperature aloft is observed. Conditions for decoupling are formulated in terms of an appropriate Richardson number. It is shown that a convective surface temperature comes into play that is coupled to the forest interior air temperature. Observed radiative surface temperature is then composed of this convective surface temperature and the aerodynamic surface temperature. Forest interior air temperature during nighttime is, in general, lower than air temperature above the canopy. A simple two-layer canopy model is used to explain this phenomenon in terms of the distribution of atmospheric sensible heat flux and storage heat flux over the two canopy layers.     

The role of wintertime radiation in maintaining and destroying stable layers

Summary Strong stable layers are a common occurrence during western Colorado's winter. Analysis of radiosonde observations indicate wintertime boundary layer heights are near 500 m. The terrain in this region consists of mountains that rise approximately 1500–2000 m above the ground to the east, providing an effective blocking barrier. An experiment is described to observe upwelling and downwelling, longwave and shortwave radiative fluxes at two sites in western Colorado during January and February 1992, for combinations of clear, cloudy, snow covered, and bare ground periods. Analysis of the observations and the surface energy budget for typical Bowen ratios provides a better understanding of the role of radiation in maintaining and destroying stable layers.During the day, the surface received a net gain of energy from radiation, while at night there was a net loss. Over snow, the 24-hour net radiative flux was small and either positive or negative. Over bare soil, the 24-hour net radiative flux was positive but still small. There is little difference in the net radiative flux between clear and cloudy days; the reduction of the incident solar flux by clouds is nearly compensated by the hindering of the longwave cooling. The cumulative effects of the 24-hour net radiative flux were negative over snow early in the experiment. The 24-hour values shifted to near zero as the snow albedo decreased and were positive for bare ground.If the daytime net radiative flux is partitioned into sensible and latent heat flux using typical Bowen ratios, the daytime sensible heat available for destroying boundary layers is small for the low solar angles of the winter season. With a Bowen ratio of 0.5, the daytime sensible heat flux available is only 0.3 to 1.2 MJ m^–2 over a snow surface and 1.4 to 2.3 MJ m^–2 over soil. These heat fluxes will not build a deep enough boundary layer to break a typical wintertime inversion. The 24-hour sensible heat flux was negative at both sites for the entire experiment with this Bowen ratio.The radiation observations and the use of typical Bowen ratios lead to the conclusion that the net radiation will sustain or strengthen a stable atmosphere in the winter season in western Colorado. Analysis of the radiosonde observations confirm this result as the boundary layer depths were less than 500 m early in the experiment and grew to only 700 m later in the experiment.With 12 Figures     

Variability of Surface Sensible Heat Flux over Northwest China

The present study documents the variability of surface sensible heat flux over Northwest China using station observations for the period 1961 2000.It is found that the afternoon and nighttime sensible heat flux variations are remarkably different.The variability of the instant flux in the afternoon is much larger than in the nighttime.The afternoon and nighttime flux anomalies tend to be opposite.The diurnal and seasonal dependence of sensible heat flux variations is closely related to the diurnal cycle of mean land-air temperature difference.The relationship of sensible heat flux with land-air temperature difference based on the instant value differs from that based on the daily mean.The present study indicates the importance for the models to properly simulate mean land-air temperature difference and its diurnal and seasonal variations in order to capture surface sensible heat flux variability over Northwest China and predicts its plausible impacts on climate.     

Evaluation of the profile and the resistance method for estimation of surface fluxes of momentum,sensible and latent heat

Summary Hourly lysimetric and micrometeorological data taken over a grass surface at the Meteorological Research Unit, Cardington U.K. have been analysed. A temperature difference and measurements of wind speed at only one height, combined with an independently estimated effective roughness length allowed sensible heat and momentum fluxes determination by the profile method on an hourly basis. The estimates are compared with direct measurements of sensible heat and friction velocity obtained by the eddy correlation method. The sensible and latent heat fluxes are also modelled by the resistance method. Equations based on the Monin—Obukhov similarity theory are used to account for stability effects through various forms of parameterization Aerodynamic and surface resistances, necessary for the Penman—Monteith equation are calculated from routinely measured meteorological data. The profile method for estimation of sensible heat flux and friction velocity is found to work excellently on the discussed daytime experimental data which correspond mainly to near neutral or slightly unstable conditions.Surface latent and sensible heat fluxes can also be described very well by the resistance method. A slightly better estimate of the sensible heat flux is achieved when stability corrections are taken into account. On the contrary Penman-Monteith equation for estimating latent heat flux is insensitive to adjustments for atmospheric stability.The comparison of the various methods leads to the establishment of empirical relationships which correlate various quantities such as soil heat flux, resistances, evapotranspiration etc. to routinely measured meteorological data.With 8 Figures     

Difference in the Interdecadal Variability of Spring and Summer Sensible Heat Flux over Northwest China

The present study investigates the difference in interdecadal variability of the spring and summer sensible heat fluxes over Northwest China by using station observations from 1960 to 2000. It was found that the spring sensible heat flux over Northwest China was greater during the period from the late 1970s to the 1990s than during the period from the 1960s to the mid-1970s. The summer sensible heat flux was smaller in the late 1980s through the 1990s than it was in the 1970s through the early 1980s. Both the spring and summer land-air temperature differences over Northwest China displayed an obvious interdecadal increase in the late 1970s. Both the spring and summer surface wind speeds experienced an obvious interdecadal weakening in the late 1970s. The change in the surface wind speed played a more important role in the interdecadal variations in sensible heat flux during the summer, whereas the change in the land-air temperature difference was more important for the interdecadal variations in sensible heat flux in the spring. This difference was related to seasonal changes in the mean land-air temperature difference and the surface wind speed. Further analysis indicated that the increase in the spring land surface temperature in Northwest China was related to an increase in surface net radiation.     

Estimating sensible heat flux from radiometric temperature over crop canopy

The model devised by Lhommeet al. (1988) allows one to calculate the sensible heat flux over a homogeneous crop canopy from radiometric surface temperature by adding a so-called canopy aerodynamic resistance to the classical aerodynamic resistance calculated above the canopy. This model is reformulated in order to simplify the mathematical procedure needed to calculate this additional resistance. Analytical expressions of micrometeorological profiles within the canopy are introduced. Assuming a constant leaf area density, an analytical expression of canopy aerodynamic resistance is inferred, which is a function of wind velocity, inclination angle of the radiometer and crop characteristics such as crop height, leaf area index, inclination index of the foliage and leaf width. Sensitivity of this resistance to the different parameters is investigated. The most significant are wind velocity and LAI. Finally, the predictions of the model are tested against two sets of measurements obtained for two different crops, potato and maize.     

Atmospheric turbulence within and above a douglas-fir stand. Part II: Eddy fluxes of sensible heat and water vapour

This is the second paper describing a study of the turbulence regimes and exchange processes within and above an extensive Douglas-fir stand. The experiment was conducted on Vancouver Island during a two-week rainless period in July and August 1990. Two eddy correlation units were operated in the daytime to measure the fluxes of sensible heat and water vapour and other turbulence statistics at various heights within and above the stand. Net radiation was measured above the overstory using a stationary net radiometer and beneath the overstory using a tram system. Supplementary measurements included soil heat flux, humidity above and beneath the overstory, profiles of wind speed and air temperature, and the spatial variation of sensible heat flux near the forest floor.The sum of sensible and latent heat fluxes above the stand accounted for, on average, 83% of the available energy flux. On some days, energy budget closure was far better than on others. The average value of the Bowen ratio was 2.1 above the stand and 1.4 beneath the overstory. The mid-morning value of the canopy resistance was 150–450 s/m during the experiment and mid-day value of the Omega factor was about 0.20. The daytime mean canopy resistance showed a strong dependence on the mean saturation deficit during the two-week experimental period.The sum of sensible and latent heat fluxes beneath the overstory accounted for 74% of the available energy flux beneath the overstory. One of the reasons for this energy imbalance was that the small number of soil heat flux plates and the short pathway of the radiometer tram system was unable to account for the large horizontal heterogeneity in the available energy flux beneath the overstory. On the other hand, good agreement was obtained among the measurements of sensible heat flux made near the forest floor at four positions 15 m apart.There was a constant flux layer in the trunk space, a large flux divergence in the canopy layer, and a constant flux layer above the stand. Counter-gradient flux of sensible heat constantly occurred at the base of the canopy.The transfer of sensible heat and water vapour was dominated by intermittent cool downdraft and warm updraft events and dry downdraft and moist updraft events, respectively, at all levels. For sensible heat flux, the ratio of the contribution of cool downdrafts to that of warm updrafts was greater than one in the canopy layer and less than one above the stand and near the forest floor.     

CMIP6全球气候模式对青藏高原中东部地表感热通量模拟能力评估

利用青藏高原（以下简称高原）气象台站常规观测资料、国家青藏高原科学数据中心的青藏高原地气相互作用过程高分辨率（逐小时）综合观测数据集（2005～2016）、国际耦合模式比较计划第六阶段（CMIP6）的历史模拟试验数据和卫星辐射资料,定量评估了12个全球气候模式对1979～2014年高原中东部地表感热通量的模拟能力,并对其模拟偏差进行了成因分析。结果表明,CMIP6模式可较好地重现高原地表感热通量的年循环和季节平均的空间分布型,但数值较计算感热通量偏低,主要表现为对感热通量大值区严重低估。区域平均而言,12个模式模拟的春季高原中东部感热通量的时间演变序列整体较计算感热通量偏低,其中偏差最大的模式为MIROC6,其多年均值仅为计算值的1/3左右。进一步分析发现多模式模拟的春季高原10 m高度处风速和地气温差分别偏强和偏弱,说明CMIP6模拟的春季高原感热通量偏低可主要归因于地气温差的模拟冷偏差。地气温差的模拟冷偏差在高原中东部地区普遍存在,且地表温度和空气温度均存在明显冷偏差,尤其地表温度偏差更大,这很大程度上可能与CMIP6多模式模拟的春季高原降水偏强有关。     

TEST OF A SENSIBLE HEAT FLUX – RADIOMETRIC SURFACE TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP FOR HAPEX-SAHEL

The estimation of the sensible heatflux from thermal infrared temperature requires anestimate of the excess resistance to be added to theaerodynamic resistance to the transfer of heat fromthe surface. This excess resistance can be expressedin terms of kB-1. An earlier studysuggested that the sensible heat flux over semi-aridregions could be derived from satellite thermalinfrared temperature using a value of kB-1= 7. Values of kB-1 were derived frommeasurements of sensible heat flux, radiometricsurface temperature, air temperature and wind speedtaken over millet, savannah and open forest sitesduring HAPEX-Sahel. These were comparable to valuesderived over similar sites during a previous study. Sensible and latent heat fluxes were estimated usingno excess resistance, kB-1 = 7 andkB-1 set to the values derived from theHAPEX-Sahel data set. There was an improvement on theestimated fluxes when an excess resistance wasincorporated. However, there was no apparentdifference between the errors in the estimated fluxeswith kB-1 set to either the derived orfixed values. This provides additional support forthe use of kB-1 = 7 in the derivation ofsurface fluxes from satellite data for sparsecanopies.     

Time and height variability of the sensible heat flux in the surface layer

The energy-budget concept is used together with a high resolution spectral radiation model to study the time and height variation of the sensible heat flux and of the eddy thermal diffusivity for an actual case up to 50 m above ground. A data set of 32 h is chosen for this study. Time-height cross-sections of the local enthalpy changes, and the radiative and the sensible heat flux divergences are presented, which show the interaction of the two energy fluxes. It can be seen, for example, that during the transient hours from night to day the sensible heat flux divergence plays an outstanding role in the warming of the atmosphere, while during the clear night radiative cooling exceeds the cooling caused by the sensible heat flux. For the layer under consideration (0-50 m) a constancy of the sensible heat flux within 10% is obtained for seven hours only, namely for the time around noon and in the early afternoon. Selected night-time profiles of the thermal diffusivity are shown, which have their maximum below 48.3 m.The accuracy of the energy-budget method is studied in detail. The tests show that a high accuracy, with errors even less than 10% for some hours, can be expected, if special micrometeorological studies are made during the field phase and a layer depth of 50 cm or less is used in the radiation model.     

Etude de la couche limite de surface sahelienne — Experience Yantala

This paper presents data concerning the energy budget in the surface layer in the Sahel region (a semi-desert area). The results are drawn from a measurement campaign made in the Niamey region in the Niger, in April–May 1984 (the Yantala Campaign). The sensible heat flux is computed with the profile method, the ground heat flux is deduced from measurement of the temperature field, and the radiative net flux is measured directly with a balancemeter. The latent heat flux, which is deduced from the energy budget balance is very weak and within the accuracy limit of the method. The diurnal variation of the net flux is symmetrical, with a maximum at noon. On the other hand, the sensible heat flux variation is asymmetrical, with an afternoon decrease much slower than the morning increase. After 3.30 pm, it becomes higher than the net flux. This is compensated for by the sign change of the ground heat flux, whose maximum is found in the morning at 11 am. The second part of this paper shows the importance of one term in the surface-layer energy budget: the long-wave radiative divergence between the ground and the top of the surface layer in high superadiabatic conditions. We show, with a radiative model on the one hand and direct measurement of the radiative divergence on the other hand, that this term reaches several tens of W m^-2 in the superadiabatic conditions found in the Sahel region.      

An Assessment of the Quality of Surface Sensible Heat Flux Derived from Reanalysis Data through Comparison with Station Observations in Northwest China

The present study compares seasonal and interdecadal variations in surface sensible heat flux over Northwest China between station observations and ERA-40 and NCEP-NCAR reanalysis data for the period 1960-2000.While the seasonal variation in sensible heat flux is found to be consistent between station observations and the two reanalysis datasets,both land-air temperatures difference and surface wind speed show remarkable systematic differences.The sensible heat flux displays obvious interdecadal variability that is season-dependent.In the ERA-40 data,the sensible heat flux in spring,fall,and winter shows interdecadal variations that are similar to observations.In the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis data,sensible heat flux variations are inconsistent with and sometimes even opposite to observations.While surface wind speeds from the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis data show interdecadal changes consistent with station observations,variations in land-air temperature difference differ greatly from the observed dataset.In terms of land-air temperature difference and surface wind speed,almost no consistency with observations can be identified in the ERA-40 data,apart from the land-air temperature difference in fall and winter.These inconsistencies pose a major obstacle to the application in climate studies of surface sensible heat flux derived from reanalysis data.     

1984年夏季张掖地区的热状况特征

本文用热平衡方法估算了1984年夏季张掖地区的平均感热、潜热输送以及对热量和水份的滞凝系数，对该地的平均热状况特征进行了研究，在张掖地区，感热通量及热量滞凝系数随高度增加，而潜热通量及水份滞凝系数则减小；热力参数与辐射参数一样，也存在着3—5天的中期振荡周期，热力参数及辐射参数相应振荡的位相差都很小，而谱相关则大多在50%以上。可以用辐射参数的平均值来估计近地面层感热和潜热输送的平均状况。张掖地区的热状况平均特征基本上与1979年QXPMEX结果一致。     

Comparative Analysis of the Mechanisms of Intensified Summer Warming over Europe-West Asia and Northeast Asia since the Mid-1990s through a Process-based Decomposition Method

Previous studies have found amplified warming over Europe-West Asia and Northeast Asia in summer since the mid-1990s relative to elsewhere on the Eurasian continent, but the cause of the amplification in these two regions remains unclear. In this study, we compared the individual contributions of influential factors for amplified warming over these two regions through a quantitative diagnostic analysis based on CFRAM (climate feedback-response analysis method). The changes in surface air temperature are decomposed into the partial changes due to radiative processes (including CO2concentration, incident solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere, surface albedo, water vapor content, ozone concentration, and clouds) and non-radiative processes (including surface sensible heat flux, surface latent heat flux, and dynamical processes). Our results suggest that the enhanced warming over these two regions is primarily attributable to changes in the radiative processes, which contributed 0.62 and 0.98 K to the region-averaged warming over Europe-West Asia (1.00 K) and Northeast Asia (1.02 K), respectively. Among the radiative processes, the main drivers were clouds, CO2concentration, and water vapor content. The cloud term alone contributed to the mean amplitude of warming by 0.40 and0.85 K in Europe-West Asia and Northeast Asia, respectively. In comparison, the non-radiative processes made a much weaker contribution due to the combined impact of surface sensible heat flux, surface latent heat flux, and dynamical processes, accounting for only 0.38 K for the warming in Europe-West Asia and 0.05 K for the warming in Northeast Asia.The resemblance between the influential factors for the amplified warming in these two separate regions implies a common dynamical origin. Thus, this validates the possibility that they originate from the Silk Road pattern.     

A DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FLUXES AND METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS OVER TROPICAL WESTERN PACIFIC

Through the use of the hourly wind, air temperature and humidity, sea surface temperature data measured on board the observing vessel Moana Wave and buoy in the warm pool of western Pacific during the IOP of TOGA COARE, we compute the fluxes over sea surface and analyze the characteristics of the variation ofthe latent heat flux with sea surface temperature. During weak rather than strong wind periods a maximum valueof latent heat flux appears at some points of SST, which is caused mainly by the variations of wind, then by the humidity difference between air and sea and the transfer coefficient with SAT. Using correlation analysis. we also analyze the relationship between the fluxes and meteorological elements during weak wind periods. wester lywind burst periods, and convective disturbed periods etc. The main conclusions are that the latent heat flux ismainly determined by wind, sensible heat flux by the potential temperature difference between air and sea and the momentum flux by wind. The precipitation affects the sensible heat flux through the potential temperature difference and wind.     

On the Contrasting Decadal Changes of Diurnal Surface Temperature Range between the Tibetan Plateau and Southeastern China during the 1980s–2000s

The diurnal surface temperature range(DTR) has become significantly smaller over the Tibetan Plateau(TP) but larger in southeastern China, despite the daily mean surface temperature having increased steadily in both areas during recent decades.Based on ERA-Interim reanalysis data covering 1979–2012, this study shows that the weakened DTR over TP is caused by stronger warming of daily minimum surface temperature(Tmin) and a weak cooling of the daily maximum surface temperature(Tmax); meanwhile, the enhanced DTR over southeastern China is mainly associated with a relatively stronger/weaker warming of Tmax/Tmin. A further quantitative analysis of DTR changes through a process-based decomposition method—the Coupled Surface–Atmosphere Climate Feedback Response Analysis Method(CFRAM)—indicates that changes in radiative processes are mainly responsible for the decreased DTR over the TP. In particular, the increased low-level cloud cover tends to induce the radiative cooling/warming during daytime/nighttime, and the increased water vapor helps to decrease the DTR through the stronger radiative warming during nighttime than daytime. Contributions from the changes in all radiative processes(over-2?C) are compensated for by those from the stronger decreased surface sensible heat flux during daytime than during nighttime(approximately 2.5?C), but are co-contributed by the changes in atmospheric dynamics(approximately-0.4?C) and the stronger increased latent heat flux during daytime(approximately-0.8?C). In contrast, the increased DTR over southeastern China is mainly contributed by the changes in cloud, water vapor and atmospheric dynamics. The changes in surface heat fluxes have resulted in a decrease in DTR over southeastern China.     

土壤湿度年际异常对中国春、夏季气候模拟的影响

基于NCAR大气模式CAM3.1模式,设计了有、无土壤湿度年际异常两组试验对中国区域近40a(1961-2000年)气候进行了模拟。从气候态和年际变率的角度,通过分析两组试验的差值场来探讨土壤湿度年际异常对气候模拟的影响,并初步探讨了影响的可能机制。结果表明:模式模拟的温度和降水对土壤湿度的年际异常非常敏感,土壤湿度的年际变化对中国春夏季气候及其年际变率均有显著影响。当不考虑土壤湿度年际异常时,模式模拟的春夏季平均温度、最高温度、最低温度在我国大范围内降低,春夏季降水在东部大部分地区明显减少,西部增加。而模式模拟的春夏季温度、降水年际变率在中国大部分地区减弱。但当考虑土壤湿度的年际变化,则能在一定程度上提高模式对气候年际变率的模拟能力。在进一步分析表明土壤湿度年际异常时,主要通过改变地表能量通量和环流场,对温度、降水产生影响。当不考虑土壤湿度年际异常时,地表净辐射通量减少,地表温度降低,感热通量减少。感热通量差值场的空间变化和温度差值场的空间变化一致,感热通量对温度有一定影响。而潜热通量差值场的空间变化和降水的差值场的空间变化一致,可见降水受地表潜热通量的影响。土壤湿度年际异常引起的环流场的变化也是导致气候变化的原因之一,地表能量和环流场年际变率的改变对春夏季气候年际变率存在一定影响。     

Utility of Radiometric–aerodynamic Temperature Relations for Heat Flux Estimation

In many land-surface models using bulk transfer (one-source) approaches, the application of radiometric surface temperature observations in energy flux computations has given mixed results. This is due in part to the non-unique relationship between the so-called aerodynamic temperature, which relates to the efficiency of heat exchange between the land surface and overlying atmosphere, and a surface temperature measurement from a thermal-infrared radiometer, which largely corresponds to a weighted soil and canopy temperature as a function of radiometer viewing angle. A number of studies over the past several years using multi-source canopy models and/or experimental data have developed simplified methods to accommodate radiometric–aerodynamic temperature differences in one-source approaches. A recent investigation related the variability in the radiometric–aerodynamic relation to solar radiation using experimental data from a variety of landscapes, while another used a multi-source canopy model combined with measurements over a wide range in vegetation density to derive a relationship based on leaf area index. In this study, simulations by a detailed multi-source soil–plant–environment model, Cupid, which considers both radiative and turbulent exchanges across the soil–canopy–air interface, are used to explore the radiometric–aerodynamic temperature relations for a semi-arid shrubland ecosystem under a range of leaf area/canopy cover, soil moisture and meteorological conditions. The simulated radiometric-aerodynamic temperatures indicate that, while solar radiation and leaf area both strongly affect the magnitude of this temperature difference, the relationships are non-unique, having significant variability depending on local conditions. These simulations also show that soil–canopy temperature differences are highly correlated with variations in the radiometric–aerodynamic temperature differences, with the slope being primarily a function of leaf area. This result suggests that two-source schemes with reliable estimates of component soil and canopy temperatures and associated resistances may be better able to accommodate variability in the radiometric–aerodynamic relation for a wider range in vegetated canopy cover conditions than is possible with one-source schemes. However, comparisons of sensible heat flux estimates with Cupid using a simplified two-source model and a one-source model accommodating variability in the radiometric-aerodynamic relation based on vegetation density gave similar scatter. On the other hand, with experimental data from the shrubland site, the two-source model generally outperformed the one-source scheme. Clearly, vegetation density/leaf area has a major effect on the radiometric–aerodynamic temperature relation and must be considered in either one-source or two-source formulations. Hence these adjusted one-source models require similar inputs as in two-source approaches, but provide as output only bulk heat fluxes; this is not as useful for monitoring vegetation conditions.