Anisotropic porothermoelastic solution and hydro‐thermal effects on fracture width in hydraulic fracturing

In this study, the effects of the temperature difference between hydraulic fracturing fluid and rock formation on the time‐dependent evolution of fracture width were investigated using a newly derived one‐dimensional anisotropic porothermoelastic analytical solution. The solution is shown to correctly reproduce existing solutions for special cases and corrections for an earlier publication are provided. An analysis of time‐dependent fracture width evolution using Woodford Shale data was also presented. It was found that when the fracturing fluid has the same temperature as the shale formation, the fracture gradually closes back after the initial opening due to the invasion of the fracturing fluid. Practically, in this scenario, proppants should be pumped into the fracture as soon as possible to obtain maximum fracture conductivity. On the other hand, with a fracturing fluid 60 °C colder than the formation, the thermal contraction of the rock dominates the fracture aperture evolution, resulting in a fracture aperture approximately 70% larger than that produced by the hotter fracturing fluid. Consequently, in this case, it is beneficial to delay proppant placement to take advantage of the widening fractures. Finally, it was found that the fracture aperture is directly controlled by the spacing of natural fractures. Therefore, the presence of natural fractures in the shale formation and their spacing influence not only the type of hydraulic fractures created but also what kind and size of proppants should be used to keep them open. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analysis of a deformable fracture in permeable material

The response of deformable fractures to changes in fluid pressure controls phenomena ranging from the flow of fluids near wells to the propagation of hydraulic fractures. We developed an analysis designed to simulate fluid flows in the vicinity of asperity‐supported fractures at rest, or fully open fractures that might be propagating. Transitions between at‐rest and propagating fractures can also be simulated. This is accomplished by defining contact aperture as the aperture when asperities on a closing fracture first make contact. Locations on a fracture where the aperture is less than the contact aperture are loaded by both fluid pressure and effective stress, whereas locations where the aperture exceeds the contact aperture are loaded only by fluid pressure. Fluid pressure and effective stress on the fracture are determined as functions of time by solving equations of continuity in the fracture and matrix, and by matching the global displacements of the fracture walls to the local deformation of asperities. The resulting analysis is implemented in a numerical code that can simulate well tests or hydraulic fracturing operations. Aperture changes during hydraulic well tests can be measured in the field, and the results predicted using this analysis are similar to field observations. The hydraulic fracturing process can be simulated from the inflation of a pre‐existing crack, to the propagation of a fracture, and the closure of the fracture to rest on asperities or proppant. Two‐dimensional, multi‐phase fluid flow in the matrix is included to provide details that are obscured by simplifications of the leakoff process (Carter‐type assumptions) used in many hydraulic fracture models. Execution times are relatively short, so it is practical to implement this code with parameter estimation algorithms to facilitate interpretation of field data. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fracture closure modes during flowback from hydraulic fractures

Flowback analysis recently has been considered as a potential tool for assessing induced fractures through corresponding pressure analyses and rate transient analysis. In this paper, we study fracture closure mechanisms during the flowback of fracturing fluid after hydraulic fracturing treatments. Although it is known that flowback can be significantly affected by the geometry of the fractures and closure stress, there has not been any effort to understand the problem from the geomechanical point of view; rather, available studies assume that a fracture closes uniformly with constant fracture compressibility. The coupled geomechanics and fluid flow model presented in this paper help to elucidate how geostresses may affect fracturing fluid recovery under different conditions. We perform a scaling analysis to formulate the occurrence of different fracture closure modes and then use numerical analyses to verify our scaling parameters. The factors governing the flowback process include the mechanical and petrophysical properties of the rock as well as preexisting discontinuities such as natural fractures. Three different closure modes for fracture networks are described and numerically verified. The occurrence of each mode can dramatically affect fracturing fluid recovery. The role of fluid leakoff into the formation, fractures conductivity, and drawdown strategy are examined for each fracture closure scenario.     

Development of a full 3D numerical model to investigate the hydraulic fracture propagation under the impact of orthogonal natural fractures

Although hydraulic fracturing has been massively studied and applied as a key technique to enhance the gas production from tight formations, some problems and uncertainties exist to accurately predict and analyze the fracture behavior in complex reservoirs, especially in the naturally fractured reservoirs like shale reservoirs. This paper presents a full 3D numerical model (FLAC3D) to study hydraulic fracturing behavior under the impact of preexisting orthogonal natural fractures. In this numerical model, the hydraulic fracture propagation direction is assumed perpendicular to the minimum principal stress and activated only by tensile failure, whereas the preexisting natural fractures can be activated by tensile or shear failure or a combination of them, and only tensile failure can open the natural fracture as well. The newly developed model was used to study the impact of preexisting orthogonal natural fractures on hydraulic fracturing behavior, based on a multistage hydraulic fracturing operation in a naturally fractured reservoir from the Barnett Shale formation, northwest of Texas in USA. In this multistage operation, two more representative stages, i.e., stage 1 with a relatively large horizontal stress anisotropy of 3.3 MPa and stage 4 with a comparatively small one of 1.3 MPa, were selected to conduct the simulation. Based on the numerical results, one can observe that the interaction between hydraulic and natural fracture is driven mainly by induced stress around fracture tip. Besides, the horizontal stress anisotropy plays a key role in opening the natural fracture. Thus, no significant opened fracture is activated on natural fracture in stage 1, while in stage 4 an opened fracture invades to about 90 m into the first natural fracture. Conversely, the hydraulic fracture length in stage 1 is much longer than in stage 4, as some fluid volume is stored in the opened natural fracture in stage 4. In this work, the shear failure on natural fractures is treated as the main factor for inducing the seismic events. And the simulated seismic events, i.e., shear failure on natural fractures, are very comparable with the measured seismic events.

     

煤层气井水力压裂同层多裂缝分析

多裂缝理论是水力压裂理论的前沿理论,特别是对裂隙发育、物理力学性质有别于均质砂岩的煤岩,其研究难度较大,面临问题很多。根据弹性力学、岩石力学、断裂力学和流体力学等学科基本理论,结合多裂缝理论与井底压力协同理论,对在天然裂隙发育的煤层同时开启的多裂缝模型进行了分析与计算。结果显示,综合滤失系数、流量、主应力差等均不同程度影响了多裂缝在近井筒区域的汇合相连概率与延伸方向。      

水平井中多条裂缝同步扩展时裂缝竞争机制

水平井中多条水力裂缝间的应力干扰行为,造成了压裂液排量的非均匀分配,影响了水力裂缝的几何形态。采用边界元法研究岩体在压裂液作用下的变形程度,以幂律流体泊肃叶平板流动方程来研究水力裂缝内部的压裂液流场,考虑了多条裂缝间应力干扰和压裂液流量分配,建立了流-固耦合的水平井多条水力裂缝同步扩展模型。模型可模拟水平井多条水力裂缝几何形态、应力干扰情况和压裂液排量的分配情况,可解释水力裂缝之间的竞争机制。多条裂缝同步扩展时,压裂液排量并非均等地分配到各个裂缝之中,进入到内部裂缝的压裂液流量最小,内部裂缝宽度最小;内部的水力裂缝增长一定长度后,停止增长,并且在应力干扰下逐渐闭合。     

The origin of tensile fracture lineaments

Fracture-controlled lineaments, commonly seen where brittle basement is exposed at the earth's surface, are generally restricted to a small number of sets, with angles of 45–90° between sets. The length-frequency distribution of lineaments in each set follows a truncated Poisson function. Such lineaments usually show almost no shearing offset, suggesting a tensile origin. A simple mechanical model of tensile fracturing is used to explain the spacing, directions, and length of lineaments, as well as their depth-frequency distribution. Results suggest that the penetration depth of tensile fractures which produce lineaments at the earth's surface is directly related to their length and that the fracture density is inversely proportional to fracture depth. Finally, the angles between lineament sets may be controlled by the ratio of strength of unfractured rock to that of pre-existing fractures, which might heal with time. The most likely source of tension is tectonic uplift. Fractures due to typical uplifts of 0.5–1 km over distances of 10–100 km may penetrate as brittle fractures to several kilometres into the crust, perhaps to the depth at which seismic activity ceases.     

斑岩型矿床容矿裂隙的成矿流体压裂改造及其脉体特点

斑岩型矿石中脉体穿切关系普遍而复杂。斑岩型矿床容矿初始裂隙之间具有程度不同的连通关系，成矿作用过程是成矿组分在既有的裂隙中迁移、充填和沉淀的过程。在多期成矿过程中，如果没有构造应力的改造，似乎不应该出现大量脉体的多期穿切关系。然而不仅是斑岩型矿床，其他与热液活动有关的矿床中均可出现大量脉体的相互穿切现象。针对此种现象，运用水力压裂机理，探讨了成矿流体对初始裂隙的压裂改造作用，认为成矿阶段多期流体活动可以形成与流体活动期次和强度相匹配的无数期新生压裂裂隙，同时可极大地扩展容矿空间的规模和范围。成矿流体压裂改造裂隙也是斑岩型矿床容矿裂隙的重要成因类型。由于流体活动的多期性和压裂裂隙生长的快速性，相比构造活动对脉体的改造，流体压裂成因裂隙所导致的脉体穿切关系更为常见。这些观点较好地解释了斑岩型矿床中频繁而复杂的脉体穿切和错断关系。      

Can tensile stress develop in fractured multilayers under compressive strain conditions?

To contribute to the understanding of how opening-mode fractures (joints) form and open or close at depth in layered rocks, we present a 2D numerical study aiming to determine whether tensile stress can develop in pre-fractured elastic multilayers submitted to biaxial compressive strain conditions.First, we investigate the role of the elastic and geometrical properties of the layers on the development of tensile stress in models with five bonded layers and containing one open fracture in the central layer. Our results indicate that, in absence of elastic contrast (in Young's modulus) between the layers, no tensile stress develops in the models. However, when the fractured layer is stiffer than the two adjacent layers directly above and below, a lobe of horizontal tensile stress develops centered on the pre-existing fracture. The creation of this tensile stress is contingent upon the partial closing of the fracture. The levels of tensile stress and the thickness of the lobe of tensile stress increase logarithmically with an increase in the elastic contrast and are systematically larger for a larger Soft/Stiff ratio (ratio of the total thickness of the soft layers with the total thickness of the stiff layers).Second, we investigate the role of fracture interaction in the development of tensile stress in models containing a pair of open fractures. We observe that the levels of tensile stress in the region between the fractures are systematically higher than those observed in identical models containing a single fracture. This increase in tensile stress is very large for small elastic contrasts between the layers but diminishes when the elastic contrast increases. Furthermore, the spacing between the pre-existing fractures plays an important role in the stress distribution in the region between them. When the fracture spacing is equal to or lower than 1.15 times the height of the fractured layer for the experimental conditions chosen, the lobes of tensile stress centered on the fractures coalesce. This results in the formation of vast areas of tensile stress in models under remote compressive loading conditions. Such tensile areas are likely to allow the initiation and propagation of subsequent opening-mode fractures.The results obtained provide new insights into the formation of joints in layered rocks in compressive environments, with important consequences on fluid flow.     

Numerical investigations of the fracture geometry and fluid distribution of multistage consecutive and alternative fracturing in a horizontal well

Hydraulic fracturing is an important technique used for developing shale gas reservoirs. Compared with multistage consecutive fracturing, multistage alternative fracturing is a more challenging technique due to the current limitations of downhole tools. This paper simulates multistage fracturing and compares the fracture geometries and fluid distributions of consecutive and alternative fracturing. It is found that simultaneous propagation of multiple fractures results in their unequal stimulations. Some perforations do not contribute to well production because their fractures are restrained. Alternative fracturing tends to create more uniform length fractures and thus achieves a greater stimulated reservoir volume than that of consecutive fracturing.     

煤层水力压裂应力与裂隙演化的细观规律

水力压裂作为煤层强化增透技术的一种,其应力演化特征及裂隙形态与扩展范围的判断尤为重要。采用离散元数值方法,以导向压裂为背景,建立水力压裂流固耦合模型;通过应力路径、裂纹热点图等手段,探究水力压裂过程中压裂排量、泊松比、天然裂隙密度对应力演化和裂隙演化的影响及其细观规律。结果表明:不同压裂排量下的应力演化方向及最终应力路径曲线形状有着明显的不同,低排量下裂隙附近的应力比值逐渐增大,而在高排量下先增大后减小;煤层泊松比越大,平均压裂半径越低,但对起裂时间及裂隙的扩展形态影响不明显;天然裂隙的发育情况对水力裂隙的扩展起着关键性作用,高裂隙发育煤层水力裂隙扩展的方向性无法预测,应力演化方向会出现反转现象;压裂过程中不同区域的应力演化特征能够反映出裂隙的扩展状态,现场可通过监测压裂区域附近应力变化,判断水力压裂缝网的扩展范围。      

Laboratory investigation of hydraulic fracture propagation using real-time ultrasonic measurement in shale formations with random natural fractures

The significance of natural fractures in unconventional shale hydrocarbon formations has opened new research frontiers in hydraulic fracturing. Among many of its unique contributions to gas production, the interaction between natural fractures and hydraulic fractures has long been experimentally and computationally investigated. Here, we experimentally investigated the evolution of the fracturing network with a self-developed ultrasonic testing system. Laboratory experiments are proposed to study the propagation of hydraulic fracture in naturally fractured model blocks that contain random micro-fractures. Our analysis suggests that the total fracture width obtained by ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) can reflect the dynamic evolution of the fracturing network. The nonlinear fracturing network evolution process is closely related to the variation of the total fracture width. It is suggested from the total fracture width that the maximum fracture network can be realized with greater natural fracture density, large injection rate, and smaller stress ratio. The study presents a better insight into the response of random naturally fractured shale formation under hydraulic fracturing treatment by analyzing the variation of UPV in real time.     

Faulting, fracturing and in situ stress prediction in the Ahnet Basin, Algeria — a finite element approach

Many low-efficiency hydrocarbon reservoirs are productive largely because effective reservoir permeability is controlled by faults and natural fractures. Accurate and low-cost information on basic fault and fracture properties, orientation in particular, is critical in reducing well costs and increasing well recoveries. This paper describes how we used an advanced numerical modelling technique, the finite element method (FEM), to compute site-specific in situ stresses and rock deformation and to predict fracture attributes as a function of material properties, structural position and tectonic stress. Presented are the numerical results of two-dimensional, plane-strain end-member FEM models of a hydrocarbon-bearing fault-propagation-fold structure. Interpretation of the modelling results remains qualitative because of the intrinsic limitations of numerical modelling; however, it still allows comparisons with (the little available) geological and geophysical data.

In all models, the weak mechanical strength and flow properties of a thick shale layer (the main seal) leads to a decoupling of the structural deformation of the shallower sediments from the underlying sediments and basement, and results in flexural slip across the shale layer. All models predict rock fracturing to initiate at the surface and to expand with depth under increasing horizontal tectonic compression. The stress regime for the formation of new fractures changes from compressional to shear with depth. If pre-existing fractures exist, only (sub)horizontal fractures are predicted to open, thus defining the principal orientation of effective reservoir permeability. In models that do not include a blind thrust fault in the basement, flexural amplification of the initial fold structure generates additional fracturing in the crest of the anticline controlled by the material properties of the rocks. The folding-induced fracturing expands laterally along the stratigraphic boundaries under enhanced tectonic loading. Models incorporating a blind thrust fault correctly predict the formation of secondary syn- and anti-thetic mesoscale faults in the basement and sediments of the hanging wall. Some of these faults cut reservoir and/or seal layers, and thus may influence effective reservoir permeability and affect seal integrity. The predicted faults divide the sediments across the anticline in several compartments with different stress levels and different rock failure (and proximity to failure). These numerical model outcomes can assist classic interpretation of seismic and well bore data in search of fractured and overpressured hydrocarbon reservoirs.     

基于扩展有限元法的碳酸盐岩地热储层岩体裂缝扩展行为

水力压裂作为一种主要的地热能开采手段,其压裂效果除与岩体基本物理力学性质有关外,还与裂隙分布、地应力状态、压裂工程参数等密切相关.为了探究以上因素对水力压裂过程中裂缝扩展行为的影响,以冀中坳陷碳酸盐岩储层岩体为研究对象,基于扩展有限元法,建立裂缝扩展流固耦合模型,分析了水平应力差、射孔方位角、注入液排量和压裂液黏度等参数对裂缝扩展行为的影响.结果表明:单裂缝扩展时,射孔方位角越小、注入量越大、越有利于裂缝扩展;双裂缝扩展时,水平应力差增大,裂缝偏转程度变小;水力裂缝与天然裂缝相交时,较小水平应力差有利于天然裂缝开启.      

孔隙水压力对岩石裂纹扩展影响的数值模拟

应用岩石破坏过程渗流-应力-损伤(FSD)耦合分析软件F-RFPA2D,通过对孔隙水压作用下岩石试件加载破坏过程的数值模拟,对孔隙水压力大小和梯度对岩石试样中裂纹的萌生和扩展进行了数值模拟研究。模拟结果再现了孔隙水压力作用下裂纹萌生扩展的全过程,表明孔隙水压力大小和梯度对岩石中裂纹的萌生和扩展模式都有很大的影响。     

A Spatial Clustering Approach for Stochastic Fracture Network Modelling

Fracture network modelling plays an important role in many application areas in which the behaviour of a rock mass is of interest. These areas include mining, civil, petroleum, water and environmental engineering and geothermal systems modelling. The aim is to model the fractured rock to assess fluid flow or the stability of rock blocks. One important step in fracture network modelling is to estimate the number of fractures and the properties of individual fractures such as their size and orientation. Due to the lack of data and the complexity of the problem, there are significant uncertainties associated with fracture network modelling in practice. Our primary interest is the modelling of fracture networks in geothermal systems and, in this paper, we propose a general stochastic approach to fracture network modelling for this application. We focus on using the seismic point cloud detected during the fracture stimulation of a hot dry rock reservoir to create an enhanced geothermal system; these seismic points are the conditioning data in the modelling process. The seismic points can be used to estimate the geographical extent of the reservoir, the amount of fracturing and the detailed geometries of fractures within the reservoir. The objective is to determine a fracture model from the conditioning data by minimizing the sum of the distances of the points from the fitted fracture model. Fractures are represented as line segments connecting two points in two-dimensional applications or as ellipses in three-dimensional (3D) cases. The novelty of our model is twofold: (1) it comprises a comprehensive fracture modification scheme based on simulated annealing and (2) it introduces new spatial approaches, a goodness-of-fit measure for the fitted fracture model, a measure for fracture similarity and a clustering technique for proposing a locally optimal solution for  fracture parameters. We use a simulated dataset to demonstrate the application of the proposed approach followed by a real 3D case study of the Habanero reservoir in the Cooper Basin, Australia.     

超临界CO2岩石致裂机制分析

超临界CO2是一种介于气体和液体之间的特殊状态的CO2流体,具有低黏、高扩散性和零表面张力等独特的性质。利用超临界CO2作为压裂液,有助于裂缝的起裂和扩展,同时可避免储层伤害。通过研究超临界CO2射流破岩和压裂特性,分析得到了超临界CO2岩石致裂机制。研究结果表明,超临界CO2低黏等特性使其更容易进入岩石微孔和微缝之中,在岩石内部建立大小不一的流体压力系统,使岩石发生拉伸和剪切破坏;常规流体压裂起裂压力较高,裂缝一般为单条或多条平直裂缝,大多沿着同一方向贯穿强度较高的胶结颗粒,且裂缝断面光滑、平整;超临界CO2压裂起裂压力相比于常规流体压裂低,在岩石中形成的裂缝网络较为复杂,裂缝互相连通,一般沿着强度较低的胶结物开裂,较少贯穿胶结颗粒,裂缝断面较为粗糙。该研究结果可为超临界CO2压裂技术的实施提供理论支撑。     

煤层顶板分段压裂水平井地质适应性分析与施工参数优化

煤层顶板分段压裂水平井是实现碎软低渗煤层煤层气高效抽采的有效技术.依托"十三五"国家科技重大专项课题,围绕煤层顶板分段压裂水平井煤层气高效抽采技术,采用理论分析、数值模拟等手段,对比不同地应力状态下裂缝的穿层扩展形态,研究水平井布井方位与最小水平主应力方向夹角对裂缝转向扩展的影响,分析多簇射孔条件下裂缝的竞争扩展现象....     

Prediction and analysis of the stimulated reservoir volume for shale gas reservoirs based on rock failure mechanism

The ultra-low-permeability shale gas reservoir has a lot of well-developed natural fractures. It has been proven that hydraulic fracture growth pattern is usually a complex network fracture rather than conventional single planar fractures by micro-seismic monitoring, which can be explained as the shear and tensile failure of natural fractures or creation of new cracks due to the increase in reservoir pore pressure caused by fluid injection during the process of hydraulic fracturing. In order to simulate the network fracture growth, a mathematical model was established based on full tensor permeability, continuum method and fluid mass conservation equation. Firstly, the governing equation of fluid diffusivity based on permeability tensor was solved to obtain the reservoir pressure distribution. Then Mohr–Coulomb shear failure criterion and tensile failure criterion were used to decide whether the rock failed or not in any block on the basis of the calculated reservoir pressure. The grid-block permeability was modified according to the change of fracture aperture once any type of rock failure criterion was met within a grid block. Finally, the stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) zone was represented by an enhancement permeability zone. After calibrating the numerical solution of the model with the field micro-seismic information, a sensitivity study was performed to analyze the effects of some factors including initial reservoir pressure, injection fluid volume, natural fracture azimuth angle and horizontal stress difference on the SRV (shape, size, bandwidth and length). The results show that the SRV size increases with the increasing initial pore reservoir and injection fluid volume, but decreases with the increase in the horizontal principal stress difference and natural fracture azimuth angle. The SRV shape is always similar for different initial pore reservoir and injection fluid volume. The SRV is observed to become shorter in length and wider in bandwidth with the decrease in natural fracture azimuth angle and horizontal principal stress difference.     

Numerical Modeling of Pore Pressure Influence on Fracture Evolution in Brittle Heterogeneous Rocks

Rock is a heterogeneous geological material. When rock is subjected to internal hydraulic pressure and external mechanical loading, the fluid flow properties will be altered by closing, opening, or other interaction of pre-existing weaknesses or by induced new fractures. Meanwhile, the pore pressure can influence the fracture behavior on both a local and global scale. A finite element model that can consider the coupled effects of seepage, damage and stress field in heterogeneous rock is described. First, two series of numerical tests in relatively homogeneous and heterogeneous rocks were performed to investigate the influence of pore pressure magnitude and gradient on initiation and propagation of tensile fractures. Second, to examine the initiation of hydraulic fractures and their subsequent propagation, a series of numerical simulations of the behavior of two injection holes inside a saturated rock mass are carried out. The rock is subjected to different initial in situ stress ratios and to an internal injection (pore) pressure at the two injection holes. Numerically, simulated results indicate that tensile fracture is strongly influenced by both pore pressure magnitude and pore pressure gradient. In addition, the heterogeneity of rock, the initial in situ stress ratio (K), the distance between two injection holes, and the difference of the pore pressure in the two injection holes all play important roles in the initiation and propagation of hydraulic fractures. At relatively close spacing and when the two principal stresses are of similar magnitude, the proximity of adjacent injection holes can cause fracturing to occur in a direction perpendicular to the maximum principal stress.