Modeling the Effects of Tidal Energy Extraction on Estuarine Hydrodynamics in a Stratified Estuary

A 3-D coastal ocean model with a tidal turbine module was used in this paper to study the effects of tidal energy extraction on temperature and salinity stratification and density-driven two-layer estuarine circulation. Numerical experiments with various turbine array configurations were carried out to investigate the changes in tidally averaged temperature, salinity, and velocity profiles in an idealized stratified estuary that connects to coastal water through a narrow tidal channel. The model was driven by tides, river inflow, and sea surface heat flux. To represent the realistic size of commercial tidal farms, model simulations were conducted based on a small percentage (less than 10 %) of the total number of turbines that would generate the maximum extractable energy in the system. Model results show that extraction of tidal in-stream energy will increase the vertical mixing and decrease the stratification in the estuary. Installation of in-stream tidal farm will cause a phase lag in tidal wave, which leads to large differences in tidal currents between baseline and tidal farm conditions. Extraction of tidal energy in an estuarine system has stronger impact on the tidally averaged salinity, temperature, and velocity in the surface layer than the bottom layer even though the turbine hub height is close to the bottom. Finally, model results also indicate that extraction of tidal energy weakens the two-layer estuarine circulation, especially during neap tides when tidal mixing is weakest and energy extraction is smallest.     

Coastal flooding: impacts of coupled wave–surge–tide models

Wind waves and elevated water levels together can cause flooding in low-lying coastal areas, where the water level may be a combination of mean sea level, tides and surges generated by storm events. In areas with a wide continental shelf a travelling external surge may combine with the locally generated surge and waves and there can be significant interaction between the propagation of the tide and surge. Wave height at the coast is controlled largely by water depth. So the effect of tides and surges on waves must also be considered, while waves contribute to the total water level by means of wave setup through radiation stress. These processes are well understood and accurately predicted by models, assuming good bathymetry and wind forcing is available. Other interactions between surges and waves include the processes of surface wind-stress and bottom friction as well as depth and current refraction of waves by surge water levels and currents, and some of the details of these processes are still not well understood. The recent coastal flooding in Myanmar (May 2008) in the Irrawaddy River Delta is an example of the severity of such events, with a surge of over 3 m exacerbated by heavy precipitation. Here, we review the existing capability for combined modelling of tides, surges and waves, their interactions and the development of coupled models.     

Tidal Changes and Coastal Hazards: Past,Present and Future

A review is presented of the nature of tidal changes and their importance in the context of coastal hazards. This is done in order to illustrate the way in which tides do and may impact on the coast as a hazard and highlight the need for research to be carried out in this context. Three main aspects of tides are significant in this respect – these are: (1) tidal heights, including tidal range and the asymmetry or otherwise of the flood/ebb cycle; (2) tidal currents, the speed and direction of which affect sediment movement, sources and sinks; and (3) tidal mixing of fresh water with water of varying levels of salinity and differing temperatures. A variety of tools, from geological data to modelling, and tide gauges to satellites, may be used to assess tidal changes. Tides form the basis on which all other coastal processes operate and are therefore important with regard to the physical, chemical and biological hazards in the coastal zone. There is an urgent need to study tidal changes – both their nature and causes – in order to ensure successful coastal management.     

南海东北部剪切流场对内波影响的研究进展

南海东北部受黑潮入侵、季风等动力因素的影响,背景剪切流场复杂,涡旋众多,水体垂向层结季节性变化明显,同时又因吕宋海峡的复杂底地形和强潮流的影响,内潮、内孤立波现象显著。但是,以往关于内潮、内孤立波的研究很少考虑到背景剪切流场和涡旋对其影响,因而难以揭示内波的生成、传播和演变规律。主要概述了南海东北部的剪切流、涡旋和内波等多种中尺度物理现象及其之间的相互作用的研究进展,进而提出未来关于南海东北部剪切流场对内波生成、传播和演变影响研究中的一些问题和研究思路。     

A numerical model of fine sediment transport on the continental shelf

A numerical model of fine-grained sediment dispersion in the New York Bight of the North American continental shelf is presented. Large amounts of waste material have been dumped in this region and the dispersal patterns of this material are of great interest to environmental managers. The model assumes that fine sediment resuspension is determined by surface wave activity and that transport is determined by tidal currents. Considering surface wave activity to be a random process reduces sediment motion to a random walk which is governed by a diffusion equation. The diffusion equation is solved numerically by an implicit time difference, finite element algorithm for a number of initial conditions. Initial conditions corresponding to ocean dumping sites show patterns of dispersal controlled by the geometry of the study region and the anisotropy of the tides. Material dumped at currently used dump sites reaches sensitive coastal areas before it leaves the continental shelf. Examination of the diffusion coefficients suggests an alternative dump site for fine-grained material. This dump site is relatively near sources of dumped material but produces minimal impact on coastal areas. This site should be considered as a possible alternative to expensive direct disposal at deep ocean sites.     

海啸波作用下泥沙运动——Ⅲ. 数学模型的建立与验证

基于Boussinesq方程耦合泥沙运动和地形演变模型,建立海啸作用下泥沙运动数学模型。地形演变模型采用WENO差分格式,并将WENO差分格式与Lax-Wendroff格式和FTBS格式进行对比分析。运用Synolakis、Kobayashi和Young的实验数据分别对水动力模块和地形演变模块进行验证,数值模拟结果与实验数据吻合良好,模型能够很好地模拟海啸波的传播、破碎、上爬、回落过程以及岸滩的冲淤变化过程,该数学模型能够运用到海啸作用下的岸滩演变研究和预测中。     

Residual Exchange Flows in Subtropical Estuaries

Observations of residual exchange flows at the entrance to four subtropical estuaries, two of them semiarid, indicate that these flows are mainly tidally driven, as they compare favorably with theoretical patterns of tidal residual flows. In every estuary examined, the tidal behavior was that of a standing or near-standing wave, i.e., tidal elevation and tidal currents were nearly in quadrature. The pattern of exchange flow that persisted at every estuary exhibited inflow in the channel and outflow over the shoals. Curiously, but also fortuitously, this pattern coincides with the exchange pattern driven by density gradients in other estuaries. The tidal stresses and the residual elevation slopes should be the dominant mechanisms that drive such tidal residual pattern because the Stokes transport mechanism is negligible for standing or near-standing waves. Time series measurements from the semiarid estuaries showed fortnightly modulation of the residual flow by tidal forcing in such a way that the strongest net exchange flows developed with the largest tidal distortions, i.e., during spring tides. This modulation is opposite to the modulation that typically results in temperate estuaries, where the strongest net exchange flows tend to develop during neap tides. The fortnightly modulation on tidal residual currents could be inferred from previous theoretical results because residual currents arise from tidal distortions but is made explicit in this study. The findings advanced herein should allow the drawing of generalities about exchange flow patterns in subtropical estuaries where residual flows are mainly driven by tides.     

台风风暴潮影响下潮滩沉积动力模拟初探--以江苏如东海岸为例

以江苏如东潮滩为研究区,采用沉积动力学垂向二维概念模型来模拟正常天气和台风期间潮滩沉积的空间分布特征,探讨台风风暴潮对潮滩正常沉积层序的改造作用.模拟结果表明,在涨落潮时间-流速对称特征明显的如东海岸,潮汐作用使潮滩沉积呈显著的分带性,且剖面形态向“双凸形”演化,两个“凸点”分别位于平均高潮位和平均低潮位附近.在台风期间风暴增水效应下,开边界悬沙浓度差异将导致潮滩冲淤和沉积分布格局的变化,潮上带和潮间带上部均堆积泥质沉积物,潮间带中下部在风暴过程中普遍遭受不同程度的砂质沉积物侵蚀或之后堆积泥质沉积物,在沉积层序中形成风暴冲刷面.因此,潮滩的风暴沉积记录存在于潮间带上部或更高部位.以此模型为基础,可进一步综合考虑极浅水边界层水动力结构、沉积物粒度分布变化、波-流联合作用、台风降水、互花米草等生物活动、潮沟摆动及人工围垦等因素,从而建立风暴事件在沉积层序中的时间序列,更好地解译沉积记录中的古环境信息.     

河流—波浪—潮汐混合作用过程研究进展

河流、波浪和潮汐混合作用过程是当前沉积学的热点问题。通过梳理三角洲与其他一些海（湖）陆过渡沉积体系中关于河流—波浪、河流—潮汐、波浪—潮汐和河流—波浪—潮汐相互作用的相关研究,归纳总结了目前几种沉积过程的相互作用以及相应的沉积特征。河流和波浪的相互作用一般发生在河口附近,两者的相对强度以及波浪入射方向共同控制三角洲的形态和沉积物分布。长期的河流和波浪共同作用能够形成非对称性三角洲以及浪控复合斜坡型三角洲。河流和潮汐的相互作用通常发生在强潮汐或中潮汐区域的三角洲或河口湾的河流—海洋过渡带;随着相对海平面升降、沉积物供给变化和气候变化等因素的影响,潮汐和河流相互作用的三角洲和河口湾沉积体系经常反复叠加发育。潮汐和波浪的相互作用主要体现在潮汐不仅直接控制沉积物的沉积过程,而且间接性地移动波浪带进而影响相应的沉积相带。尽管目前河流、波浪、潮汐混合作用过程已经有一定程度的研究,但无论是短期小尺度的相互作用过程,还是长期受宏观因素（包括沉积物供给、海平面升降、构造沉降等）影响下的相互作用与演化过程,均有待进一步研究。     

Tidally-induced shear stress variability above intertidal mudflats in the macrotidal seine estuary

Tidal currents and the spatial variability of tidally-induced shear stress were studied during a tidal cycle on four intertidal mudflats from the fluvial to the marine part of the Seine estuary. Measurements were carried out during low water discharge (<400 m³ s⁻¹) in neap and spring tide conditions. Turbulent kinetic energy, covariance, and logarithmic profile methods were used and compared for the determination of shear stress. The c_TKE coefficient value of 0.19 cited in the literature was confirmed. Shear stress values were shown to decrease above mudflats from the mouth to the fluvial part of the estuary due to dissipation of the tidal energy, from 1 to 0.2 N m⁻² for spring tides and 0.8 to 0.05 N m⁻² for neap tides. Flood currents dominate tidally-induced shear stress in the marine and lower fluvial estuary during neap and spring tides and in the upper fluvial part during spring tides. Ebb currents control tidally-induced shear stress in the upper fluvial part of the estuary during neap tides. These results revealed a linear relationship between friction velocities and current velocities. Bed roughness length values were calculated from the empirical relationship given by Mitchener and Torfs (1996) for each site; these values are in agreement with the modes of the sediment particle-size distribution. The influence of tidal currents on the mudflat dynamics of the Seine estuary was examined by comparing the tidally-induced bed shear stress and the critical erosion shear stress estimated from bed sediment properties. Bed sediment resuspension induced by tidal currents was shown to occur only in the lower part of the estuary.     

Wave-forced resuspension of upper Chesapeake Bay muds

Moored instruments were used to make observations of near bottom currents, waves, temperature, salinity, and turbidity at shallow (3.5 m and 5.5 m depth) dredged sediment disposal sites in upper Chesapeake Bay during the winters of 1990 and 1991 to investigate time-varying characteristics of resuspension processes over extended periods. Resulting time series data show the variability of two components of the suspended sediment concentration field. Background suspended sediment concentrations varied inversely with salinity and in direct relation to Susquehanna River flow. Muddy bottom sediments were also resuspended locally by both tidal currents and wind-wave forcing, resulting in short-term increases and decreases in suspended concentration, with higher peak concentrations near the bottom. In both years, episodes of wave-forced resuspension dominated tidal resuspension on an individual event basis, exceeding most tidal resuspension peaks by a factor of 3 to 5. The winds that generated the waves responsible for the observed resuspension events were not optimal for wave generation, however. Application of a simple wind-wave model showed that much greater wave-forced resuspension than that observed might be generated under the proper conditions. The consolidated sediments investigated in 1990 were less susceptible to both tidal and wave-forced resuspension than the recently deposited sediments investigated in 1991. There was also some indication that wave-forced resuspension increased erodibility of the bottom sediments on a short-term basis. Wave-forced resuspension is implicated as an important part of sediment transport processes in much of Chesapeake Bay. Its role in deeper, narrower, and more tidally energetic estuaries is not as clear, and should be investigated on a case-by-case basis.     

磨刀门河口洪季波生流及其泄洪影响

磨刀门已由"径流型"向"径流-波浪型"河口转变,波浪已是该河口主要动力之一,但波浪对河口洪季水流及泄洪的影响缺少研究。在2-D潮流数学模型中添加随潮位实时变化的波浪辐射应力,建立波浪潮流耦合数学模型;波浪求解采用缓坡方程,背景水深由潮流模型实时提供,可通过比较考虑和未考虑波浪影响的河口流场来分析波浪对泄洪的影响。在年均常浪作用下,磨刀门河口洪季涨落潮阶段均有明显的波生环流结构。由于波浪作用方向向陆,波生流减弱了浅滩区的向海余流,增大了浅滩向陆余流;受浅滩向海余流减弱影响,河口动力自调整后形成归槽水流,促使深槽内向海余流增大。波浪有顶托河口泄洪之势,可改变滩槽泄洪分配比例;年均常浪的波高较小,其对潮流及泄洪的影响区域限制在浅水区,故对泄洪的负面影响有限。     

Wave and tidal current sorting of shelf sediments southwest of England

The relative roles of waves and tidal currents in transporting bottom sediment on the continental shelf off Lands End, southwest England, are evaluated by study of (a) sediment grain size in relation to boundary layer measurements in tidal currents, (b) regional variation in sediment parameters in relation to peak tidal and wave-induced currents, and (c) visual observation of bedforms. (a) The sediments are mainly zoogenic sands. The average hydraulic equivalent median diameter is Mdφ=1.40φ (medium grade sand), and two-thirds of the median grain sizes fall between 0.97φ and 1.83φ. The linear bottom current which will just move this range of sizes is exceeded only slightly by the highest tidal drag velocities ū* measured in the area. Thus, sediment movement by tidal currents alone is restricted to areas of high bed roughness and strong peak tidal flows. In contrast, wave-induced oscillatory currents at 100 m depth (typical of the area) attain sufficient speed to disturb the same particle sizes over 3% of the time. This includes storm periods when much greater velocities occur. (b) The average Mdφ of the sediment decreases southwest and northeast from south of the Lizard. This correlates well with the pattern of maximum tidal current speeds, suggesting that tidal currents control the areal distribution of sediment median grain size. Most sediments are well sorted (mean σ_i=0.48φ). Sorting improves at shallower depths but does not improve in areas of faster tidal currents, suggesting that wave-induced currents exert the major control on sorting. Silt and clay proportions increase west of the Scilly Isles and are influenced by both wave and tidal currents. (c) Photographs and television pictures show that symmetrical bedforms due to wave action are dominant north and west of the western Channel. Asymmetric bedforms are more common in the western Channel itself, where tidal currents and bed roughness are both high. Results are used to construct a sediment transport model for the study area. Since medium grade well sorted sands occur in depths of over 100 m, many ancient, extensive, well sorted sand sheets may have been deposited at depths greater than previously suspected.     

Features and Origin of Turbidity Current Sediment Waves in the Huatung Basin off the Eastern Taiwan Island

Based on numerous high-resolution seismic profiles, sediment waves and their distribution, morphological characteristics, internal structure, and potential origins were revealed in the eastern waters of Taiwan. The sediment waves are located at the junction between the Taitung Canyon and other canyons in the slope. The wave length and the wave height of a single waveform ranged from 0.8 to 7.2 km and from 18 to 75 m, respectively (NE-SW direction). Sediment waves, located inside the bend of the Taitung Canyon, were characterized by an upward migration and showed mass transport deposits (MTDs) at the bottom, while the inner curve of the bend was subdivided into lower and upper wavy transition units. The sediment waves on the outer curve of the bend were characterized by vertical accumulation, and there was no mass flow deposit at the bottom. According to the geometry of the sediment waves, the calculated flow thicknesses across the entire wave field ranged from 196 to 356 m, and the current velocity ranged from 15 to 21 cm/s. The morphological characteristics, the internal structure, and the distribution of sediment waves, as well as the numerical calculations, evidenced that these sediment waves had formed by turbidity currents. The development of the sediment wave field in eastern Taiwan was found to be similar to that in southwestern Taiwan. It was the sedimentary response of the tectonic movement between 3 and ~1 Ma which created the sedimentary systems where gravity flow processes predominated. Turbidity current sediments settled in the place of less topographical constraints or overflowed in the bend section of the Taitung Canyon, which resulted in the formation of sediment wave fields.     

Inferring bottom circulation based on sediment pattern distribution in the San José Gulf,Patagonia Argentina

The goal of this work was to infer the spatio-temporal patterns of bottom circulation of San José Gulf (SJG), Patagonia, Argentina. The SJG is mainly affected by tidal circulation and presents two hydrographic domains. The Western Hydrographic Domain (WHD) presents vertically mixed waters year-round contrary to the seasonal stratified Eastern Hydrographic Domain (EHD), resulting in the formation of a thermal front between domains. Samples of sediments were collected in spring 2016 and summer 2017 at several locations to analyze the grain-size composition by means of laser diffractometry. A conceptual model of bottom hydrodynamics was inferred based on sediment's grain-size trends. Asymmetric dominant tidal currents affect bottom sediment distribution. A general northward sediment transport is dominant at the WHD, while at the EHD there is a seasonal shift in the transport direction. There, a net northward transport with a counterclockwise gyre dominates bottom hydrodynamics at the end of the thermal front formation, conditioned by residual currents. In contrast, a net southward circulation likely driven by strong westerly winds throughout autumn and winter prevails at the beginning of the water column stratification. The inferred sediment transport suggests a net loss of material that has to be recovered by tidal currents entering through the mouth and coastal sources as runoff, mudslides, and/or aeolian dust.     

A study of the dynamics of a marine sandwave

The movement of the crest of a sandwave was studied using cross-sectional profiles obtained from lines of sea-bed reference stakes. Measurements were made, over a six month period, before and after flood and ebb tides in relation to both spring and neap tides and surface wave conditions. Additional observations were obtained on a daily basis, over an equinoctial neap to spring to neap tidal period, in conjunction with boundary layer flow measurements. Tracer experiments were conducted to study the dispersion of sediment from the sandwave crest. The results showed that the sandwave was relatively stable at neap tides, whilst at higher tidal ranges, the crest position oscillated with successive flood and ebb tides. Net flank erosion occurred on the less steep, upstream slope during the dominant ebb tide. This, together with increased deposition on the lee slope, caused the crest to advance. It was not possible to extrapolate sandwave migration over long periods as the tidal dynamic trends were interrupted by wind stress and surface wave activity. High particle orbital velocities, generated at the sea-bed by storm waves, caused major reductions in crestal heights. Calculated volumes of sediment eroded and accreted were used, with boundary layer flow measurements, to calculate threshold velocities for the movement of the sediment and sediment transport rates.     

莱州湾悬沙输运机制研究

基于2012年实测的潮流、含沙量及表层沉积物数据及资料等,分析了潮流、余流、潮流底应力及底质类型对含沙量变化的影响,并运用物质通量分析方法,探讨了莱州湾悬浮泥沙的输运机制.研究结果表明:研究海域受半日潮控制呈往复流特征,涨、落潮期间近底含沙量与流速及潮流底应力显著相关,存在明显的再悬浮现象,含沙量呈现潮周期变化特征;底质类型与含沙量大小密切相关,细颗粒物质更容易发生悬浮;平流输运与潮泵效应是莱州湾海域的悬沙输运的主要动力因素.     

Assessment of the relative importance of major sediment‐transport mechanisms in the central Great Barrier Reef lagoon

The delivery, flux and fate of terrigenous sediment entering the Great Barrier Reef lagoon has been a focus of recent studies and represents an ongoing environmental concern. Wave‐induced bed stress is the most significant mechanism of sediment resuspension in the Great Barrier Reef, and field data and mathematical modelling indicates that the combined effects of short‐period wind waves, longer period swell waves, and tidal and wind‐driven currents can often exceed the critical bed stress for resuspension. Suspended‐sediment concentrations at 20 m water depth indicate resuspension seldom occurs on the middle shelf under normal wave conditions. Non‐cyclonic turbidity events are generally confined to the inner shelf. The wave climate in the southern sector of the central Great Barrier Reef lagoon is the most erosive, and resuspension of outer shelf sediments was hindcast for recorded cyclones. Wind‐driven, longshore currents are fundamental to the northward movement of sediment, and the annual northward mass flux from embayments undergoing resuspension in the Burdekin region is estimated to be one order of magnitude larger than the mass of sediment introduced by a moderate flood plume. Strong onshore winds are estimated to generate significant three‐dimensional bottom return currents on approximately 30–70 days per year, forming a potentially significant offshore‐directed sediment flux during high suspended‐sediment concentration events on the inner shelf.     

Evolution and mechanics of a Miocene tidal sandwave

A remarkable exposure of Miocene marine molasse in western Switzerland records the evolution of a tidal sandwave over a period of approximately 2 1/2 months. The sandwave is composed of tidal ‘bundles’ in which a sandwave reactivation stage and full vortex stage can be recognized for the dominant flow (ebb tide) and a rippled flood apron overlain by high water drape for the reversed flow. Bundle thicknesses vary systematically through neap–spring cycles, with a periodicity of 27 demonstrating the semi-diurnal lunar control of sedimentation. Waves were an additional component, especially when superimposed on flood tides, producing near-symmetrical combined-flow ripple marks in the flood apron. Tidal current velocities are estimated using critical shear velocities for entrainment, the ripple-dune transition and the dune-plane bed transition. Using appropriate estimates of roughness lengths and a logarithmic velocity law, maximum tidal speeds at 1 m above the bed were approximately 0·6 m sec^?1 for ebbs and up to 0·5 m sec^?1 for floods. The enhancement by waves of bed shear stress (τ_wc/τ of approximately 2 for 1 m high waves) under flood currents implies flood tidal velocities closer to 0·2–0·3 m sec^?1. Peak instantaneous bedload sediment transport rates using a modified Bagnold equation are nearly 5 times greater under ebb tides than floods. The average net sediment transport rate at springs (0·04 kg m^?1 sec^?1) is over 10 times greater than at neaps (0·002 kg m^?1 sec^?1). Comparison with transport rates in modern tidal environments suggests that the marine molasse of Switzerland was deposited under spatially confined and relatively swift tidal flows not dissimilar to those of the present Dutch tidal estuaries.     

Coastal morphology and beach stability along Thiruvananthapuram,south-west coast of India

Shoreline changes are largely dependent on coastal morphology. South-west coast of India is a high energy coast characterised by monsoon high waves, steep beach face and medium-sized beach sand. Waves are generally from west and west south-west during rough monsoon season and from south-west during fair weather season. Shoreline change along this coast is studied with reference to coastal morphological features. Various morphological features, modifications and chronological positions of shoreline are analysed with the information derived from multidated satellite imageries, toposheets and GPS shoreline mapping along with extended field survey. Image processing and GIS techniques have been used for the analysis of data and presentation of results. Sediment accumulation on the leeward side of artificial structures such as harbour breakwaters and groynes is used as a sediment transport indicator. Artificial structures such as seawalls, groynes and harbour breakwaters modify morphology. Shoreline south of headlands/promontories and breakwaters are stable or accreting due to net northerly longshore sediment transport while erosion tendency is observed on the north side. Lateritic cliffs fronting the sea or with seasonal beach undergo slumping and cliff edge retreat as episodic events. Spits adjoining tidal inlets are prone to shoreline variations due to oscillations of inlet mouth. Interventions in the form of inlet stabilization and construction of coastal protection structures trigger erosion along adjoining coasts. Seawalls constructed along highly eroding coasts get damaged, whereas those constructed along monsoon berm crest with frontal beaches for protection against monsoon wave attack are retained. Fishing gaps within seawalls are areas of severe temporary erosion during rough monsoon season. Accretion or erosion accompanies construction of harbour breakwaters in a stable coastal plain. Close dependence of shoreline changes on morphology necessitates detailed understanding of impacts on morphology prior to introducing any intervention in the coastal zone.