Characteristics and dynamics of the Ganqiuchi rock avalanche triggered by a paleo-earthquake in the Northern Qinling Mountains

Analyzing large prehistoric rock avalanches provides significant data for evaluating the disaster posed by these relatively infrequent but destructive geological events. This paper attempts to study the characteristics and dynamics of the Ganqiuchi granitic rock avalanche, in the middle of the northern margin of Qinling Mountains, 30 km to the south of Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China. In plane view, this rock avalanche is characterized by source area, accumulation area and dammed lake area. Based on previous studies, historical records and regional geological data, the major trigger of the Ganqiuchi rock avalanche is considered to be a strong paleo-earthquake with tremendous energy. The in situ deposit block size distributions of the intact rock mass and the debris deposits are presented and analyzed by using a simple model for estimating the number of fragmentation cycles that the blocks underwent. The results show that the primary controlling factor of the fragmentation process is the pre-existing fractures, and there is a relationship between the potential energy and the fragmentation energy: the latter is approximately 20% of the former. Based on the dynamic discrete element technique, the study proposes a four-stage model for the dynamic course of the Ganqiuchi rock avalanche:(1) failing;(2) highspeed sliding;(3) collision with obstacles;(4) decelerated sliding, which has implication for hazard assessment of the potential rock avalanches in China and other countries with similar geological setting.     

平面剪切岩质边坡滑裂面的确定及稳定性分析

由于传统搜索方法对岩质边坡滑裂面的确定无法兼顾效率与精度, 如何迅速准确确定潜在滑裂面仍然是个难题。极限平衡法在岩质边坡稳定性分析中备受认可, 采用岩质边坡平面剪切滑动模型, 以滑裂面的倾角来表征潜在滑裂面的位置; 基于极值法, 推导了极限平衡条件下平面剪切破坏型岩质边坡潜在滑裂面的解析解, 并结合香港秀茂坪路边坡对其准确性进行了验证, 进一步对四川宜宾打营盘山公路多级边坡进行了整体稳定性分析。结果表明: 香港秀茂坪边坡采用本文方法确定的边坡潜在滑裂面倾角与实际滑坡倾角基本一致。实际工程应用中, 采用Slide软件中布谷鸟搜索法和模拟退火法两种搜索方法得到的滑裂面倾角分别为38.0°和37.0°, 本解析法所得倾角为34.8°; 选用Janbu法、Morgenstern-Price法和Sarma法分别计算对应的稳定系数, 结果均为1.04左右, 本文所得稳定系数为1.15, 可见本文方法所得结果基本准确。通过参数敏感性分析发现, 随着黏聚力的增加, 边坡滑裂面倾角越来越小, 稳定系数也随之增加; 而当内摩擦角增大时, 边坡滑裂面倾角和稳定系数也随之增大。      

Failure behavior of soil-rock mixture slopes based on centrifuge model test

The stability of soil-rock mixtures(SRMs) that widely distributed in slopes is of significant concern for slope safety evaluation and disaster prevention. The failure behavior of SRM slopes under surface loading conditions was investigated through a series of centrifuge model tests considering various volumetric gravel contents. The displacement field of the slope was determined with image-based displacement system to observe the deformation of the soil and the movement of the block during loading in the tests. The test results showed that the ultimate bearing capacity and the stiffness of SRM slopes increased evidently when the volumetric block content exceeded a threshold value. Moreover, there were more evident slips around the blocks in the SRM slope. The microscopic analysis of the block motion showed that the rotation of the blocks could aggravate the deformation localization to facilitate the development of the slip surface. The high correlation between the rotation of the key blocks and the slope failure indicated that the blocks became the dominant load-bearing medium that influenced the slope failure. The blocks in the sliding body formed a chain to bear the load and change the displacement distribution of the adjacent matrix sand through the block rotation.     

Application of transparent soil model tests to study the soil-rock interfacial sliding mechanism

When transparent soil technology is used to study the displacement of a slope, the internal deformation of the slope can be visualized. We studied the sliding mechanism of the soil-rock slope by using transparent soil technology and considering the influence of the rock mass Barton joint roughness coefficient, angle of the soil mass, angle of the rock mass and soil thickness factors on slope stability. We obtained the deformation characteristics of the soil and rock slope with particle image velocimetry and the laser speckle technique. The test analysis shows that the slope sliding can be divided into three parts: displacements at the top, the middle, and the bottom of the slope; the decrease in the rock mass Barton joint roughness coefficient, and the increase in soil thickness, angles of the rock mass and soil mass lead to larger sliding displacements. Furthermore, we analyzed the different angles between the rock mass and soil thickness. The test result shows that the displacement of slope increases with larger angle of the rock mass. Conclusively, all these results can help to explain the soil-rock interfacial sliding mechanism.     

软硬互层顺层岩质边坡破坏试验

软硬互层结构的顺层岩质边坡破坏类型复杂、难于防治, 针对此类边坡地质灾害易发、多发的问题, 从坡面角度、岩层倾向及组合形式、节理分布等方面进行了研究。边坡物理模型试验是揭示边坡变形破坏机理的重要手段, 基于相似理论, 以重庆市万州区孙家滑坡为工程依托, 根据滑坡区地质勘探报告设计了室内边坡物理模型试验; 试验通过顶升模型箱模拟重力加载来探究顺层岩质边坡发生破坏时, 前缘坡角和软弱夹层倾角之间的关系; 结合有限元分析软件Plaxis 2D对物理模型进行了多组数值模拟试验, 以验证软硬互层顺层岩质边坡破坏机制。试验结果表明: 对于顺层岩质边坡, 当软弱夹层的倾角在22°左右, 前缘开挖坡角58°左右时, 顺层岩质边坡容易发生滑动, 滑动面为后缘节理面和软弱夹层的贯通面。因此, 顺层岩质边坡稳定性受层面和节理面密度的控制, 当边坡含多层软弱层面时, 易沿层面和后缘节理贯通面发生破坏, 随着软弱面层数增加, 边坡稳定系数逐渐降低。研究成果可以为公路开挖切坡导致的顺层岩质边坡失稳机理研究及其稳定性评价提供理论依据, 为顺层岩质边坡失稳的预测预报提供支撑。      

Numerical simulation for different motion forms of sliding soil along slope with PFC3D

The motion forms (deformation) of the sliding soil along the slope include inviscid particle flow, viscous particle flow, and mass sliding. The motion forms were mainly influenced by the mechanical properties of the viscous mud medium filling. The effect of the medium filling on the motion forms of the sliding soil is worth discussing. The sliding soil can be seen as the mixture which is composed of the medium filling and coarse particles. The Chengdu clay with different moisture contents were selected as the medium filling. Their mechanical parameters were experimentally measured for simulating the moving process of the sliding soil. Different motion forms of the sliding soil were numerical simulated based on PFC3D by changing the specific mechanical parameters. The mechanical parameters of the Chengdu clay are experimentally determined. The numerical results show that with the moisture content of the filling slurry medium in the range of >302%, 101%~182%, and <80%, the motion form of the sliding soil belongs to the inviscid particles flow (similar with the sliding sand), viscous particles flow (seen as the viscous flows); and mass sliding (seen as the block sliding along the slope surface), respectively.     

基于无人机倾斜摄影技术的崩塌隐患早期识别及影响区划分方法

高位危岩崩塌极具隐蔽性、突发性和灾难性,传统的接触式调查方法在安全性方面无法完全保障并且也难以彻底查清边坡上各危岩块体的空间分布及发育特征,因此如何安全快速准确地获取边坡面上关键地质信息,一直是崩塌地质灾害调查及评价研究中的难点之一,也是防灾减灾工作中极为重要的环节。以连云港市某矿区高陡岩质边坡为例,提出了一套基于无人机倾斜摄影技术的崩塌隐患早期识别及影响区划分方法体系,该方法体系通过倾斜摄影技术获取研究区高分辨率影像及构建三维高精度地质模型,在此基础上利用测线法提取并统计边坡优势结构面空间展布特征及相关参数,利用赤平投影法对矿区高边坡关键危岩块体失稳模式进行判别,在完成关键危岩块体稳定性评价并划分稳定等级的前提下使用Rocfall模拟最不利工况下崩落体失稳后的滚落运动特征,从而划分出不同级别的崩塌影响区,为最终的地质灾害防治提供依据。研究表明,无人机倾斜摄影技术在崩塌隐患早期识别、破坏模式分析、稳定性评价以及崩落体威胁范围划定等方面具有显著的可行性和优越性。所提出的基于无人机倾斜摄影技术的崩塌隐患早期识别及影响区划分方法体系具有重要的参考价值。      

非均一性斜坡落石运动轨迹

现有的落石运动轨迹研究均将斜坡视为半无限均匀的坡面,而实际的工况下,坡面由不均一材料组成。根据落石不同的运动模式,将坡面简化为多层岩土体材料的结构形式,在滚动阶段,基于Hertz接触理论得到落石在不同坡面条件下运动特征,并给出坡面分层条件下落石切向摩擦系数的计算公式,在碰撞阶段,基于能量守恒定理,采用准静态接触力学理论得到法向恢复系数公式,理论推导得到任意层厚岩土体材料坡面条件下落石法向和切向恢复系数的解析解,然后求解得到碰撞后落石运动参数,并根据碰撞后落石的速度及回弹量关系,给出碰撞后落石运动模式转换的判别条件,最后结合运动学定理,得到3种运动模式任意分层坡面条件落石的运动轨迹,将理论公式应用于某山区落石运动轨迹预测,验证了理论公式的适用性和有效性。      

Mechanism of mining-induced slope movement for gullies overlaying shallow coal seams

This paper provides an improved understanding of the movement mechanisms of both bed-rock gully and sandy soil gully when underground mining occurs underneath, followed by systematic analysis of the contributing factors such as mining advance direction, gully slope angle, gully erosion coefficient and mining height. This paper presents the results from monitoring, theoretical analyses and up to date modeling based on the geological features in the gully affected area, and the implications of these results to the success of roof support trial. It was observed that when mining occurred towards the gully, sliding of slope block along the fracture surface occurred, which resulted in unstable roof condition; when mining progressed away from the gully, polygon blocks developed in the gully slope and rotated in reversed direction forming hinged structure; within the bed-rock slope, the hinged structure was unstable due to shear failure of the polygon block; however, within the sandy soil slope, the structure was relatively stable due to the gradual rotating and subsiding of the polygon block. The increase of the value of slope angle and mining height lead to a faster and more intensive fracture development within the gully slope, which had a pronounced effect on gully slope stability and underground pressure. Various remediation approaches are hence proposed in this paper including introducing more powerful support and reasonable mining height, setting up working face along or away from gullies, using room and pillar, strip mining and backfill instead of longwall mining.     

基于模型试验的动水驱动型顺层岩质滑坡启滑机制初探

动水驱动型顺层岩质滑坡数量多、灾害频发、危害大, 是滑坡地质灾害领域的研究重点, 但目前对于滑坡启滑机制的认识仍不充分, 滑坡的准确预报还面临巨大挑战。鉴于此, 以含软弱夹层的中倾角顺层岩质滑坡为研究对象, 通过构建理想的单层滑带滑坡物理模型, 开展了一系列动水作用下的滑坡模型试验研究。结果表明, 动水作用下顺层岩质滑坡从开始变形至失稳滑动需经历初始变形、缓慢变形、加速变形和失稳破坏4个阶段, 而各个阶段的演化特征与滑面粗糙度和倾角密切相关。滑面倾角越大或粗糙度越小, 滑坡体从开始变形至失稳滑动所需的时间则越短; 相应地, 坡体加速变形阶段越不明显, 滑坡破坏的突发性越强。滑带内的渗流冲蚀作用会使滑带土中的骨料流失, 导致其抗剪强度降低, 进而引发坡体滑动。与此同时, 上覆坡体的压剪作用以及变形演化过程亦将反过来影响冲蚀强度。基于滑带土黏聚力随水力梯度和冲蚀时间的变化关系, 提出了渗流驱动下滑带土黏聚力演化模型, 可较好地描述滑带土黏聚力的退化过程。滑面粗糙度的存在不仅显著影响了滑带的冲蚀劣化规律, 还改变了滑带不同区域的破坏模式。此外, 通过考虑滑面粗糙度对滑带不同区域破坏模式的影响, 开展了动水多效应关联分析, 建立了滑坡地质体力学分析模型, 实现了动水作用下顺层岩质滑坡动态稳定性的有效评估。本研究成果可为实际动水驱动型顺层岩质滑坡的预测和防治提供理论参考。      

基于演化过程的互层斜坡深层倾倒稳定性评价

互层倾倒是一类典型的深层倾倒模式,为准确评价其稳定性,开展互层倾倒的工程地质特性及稳定性评价研究。以雅砻江上游发育的深层倾倒体为典型实例,利用基于演化过程的研究方法,在构建倾倒体工程地质模型的基础上,从变形过程和演化阶段上定量评价斜坡整体稳定性。研究表明:互层倾倒是由块体倾覆和板梁弯曲形成的复合倾倒模式,即:硬岩发生块状-弯曲倾倒,而软岩发生弯曲倾倒;空间上,一个发育完备的倾倒体可划分为:滑动区(A区)、强倾倒区(B区)、弱倾倒区(C区)以及原岩区(D区)。基于实测数据提出的斜坡倾倒定量描述体系,可以作为岩体倾倒变形识别和变形程度分级的基本依据;时间上,互层倾倒演化过程主要经历4个演化阶段:卸荷回弹陡倾拉裂面阶段,初始变形阶段,板梁根部折断、剪切面贯通阶段以及破坏阶段,并最终转化为蠕滑-拉裂模式形成滑坡。该滑动面受强变形岩体中倾向坡外结构面控制,而并非沿最大弯折带发育;滑动区(A区)的出现意味着斜坡最终破坏的发生,对应于演化的第三阶段,为斜坡的极限平衡状态,稳定性系数介于1.0~1.05之间。基于演化过程的评价方法,能有效解决互层倾倒稳定性评价问题。     

岩质边坡平面滑动锚固方向角的三维优化方法

以岩质边坡中常见的平面滑动为研究对象,研究其最优锚固方向角的计算方法。将锚索自由段单位长度能提供的最大抗滑增量作为目标控制变量,将坡面和滑动面特征参数与锚索设计参数作为优化控制自变量,通过坐标系转换得到的线性方程组对锚索的预拉力进行分解,并根据锚索支护时的三维模型建立了锚索自由段长度的优化公式,进而推导了用于锚固方向角三维优化的新计算方程。在该方程的基础上借助MATLAB软件中的fmincon函数对锚索加固方向不受限制时的锚固方向角进行了优化。最后通过锚固方向角敏感性分析与工程实例分析相结合,证明了推荐的最优锚固方向角计算方法的有效性与先进性。新方法有效地解决了边坡坡面与滑动面走向存在夹角时最优锚固方向角的求解问题,可进一步提高锚索的锚固效益,降低边坡的支护费用。      

极限平衡方法在夏日哈木镍钴矿山拟建露天采场边坡角优化中的应用

夏日哈木镍钴矿为大型镍钴硫化物矿床,现拟建大型露天采场,边坡采用分台阶式高边坡,最高边坡高度超过600m。该工程具有开挖成本高,边坡一但失稳后果严重的特点。为此需要选择一个即节约经济成本又保障整体边坡稳定的最佳边坡角。本文采取Geostudio软件中的Slope模块极限平衡方法对拟建露天采场假设开挖边坡角的整体边坡稳定性进行分析,提出最佳设计边坡角。　本次边坡角优化的思路：首先根据场地工程地质条件和拟建边坡的高度等因素将拟建边坡划分为5个区,选择典型边坡工程地质剖面并进行工程地质岩体分段,然后通过岩石强度指标折减计算（本文采用费辛柯法、M.Georgi法和经验法）给各分段的岩体赋予凝聚力、内摩擦角等计算参数,采用极限平衡方法（Geostudio软件中的Slope模块法）对不同角度下对各分区边坡的破坏形式及安全系数进行计算,最后提出了各分区边坡的最佳设计边坡角。     

Modelling the flexural buckling failure of stratified rock slopes based on the multilayer beam model

The buckling failure of stratified rock slopes intersected by a set of steep discontinuities that are approximately parallel to the slope surface is frequently encountered while constructing railways and roadways in mountainous areas. In this study, an analytical approach based on the energy equilibrium principle is presented to solve the flexural buckling stability of stratified rock slopes within the framework of multilayer beam theory. The generalized HoekBrown failure criterion is introduced to reflect the influences of slope size(scale effects) on the buckling stability. Subsequently, numerical and physical modellings from previous literatures are employed to validate the proposed approach. Furthermore, a practical case of Bawang Mountain landslide is also used for the comparative analysis. The study shows that the present analytical approach is capable to provide a more reasonable assessment for the buckling failure of stratified rock slopes, compared with several existing analytical approaches. Finally, a detailed parametric study is implemented, and the results indicate that the effects of rock strength, rock deformation modulus, geological strength index, layer thickness and disturbance degree of rock mass on the buckling failure of stratified rock slopes are more significant than that of rock type and slope angle.     

On the initiation,movement and deposition of a large landslide in Maoxian County,China

At 5 am 24 th June 2017, a catastrophic landslide hit Xinmo Village, Maoxian County, Sichuan Province, China. The slide mass rushed down from an altitude of 3400 m and traveled 2700 m in a high velocity. The 13 million m~3 deposition buried the whole village and caused about 100 deaths. The source area of the landslide is located in a high steep slope, average slope angle is 40o and maximal angle is 65o. The strata are interbedded Triassic Zagunao Formation metamorphic sandstone and slate with the dip slope angle of 45°. Based on high-resolution satellite remote sensing image, UAV image, DEM data, and field investigation, failure mechanism, travel features, and deposit characteristics were analyzed. The results showed that this landslide was influenced by Songpinggou Fault zone. According to the topography before the failure, the landslide is located in the back scarp of an antecedent landslide induced by Diexi Earthquake in 1933. The bedding slope provided potential rupture surface. Historical seismic activities and long-term gravitational deformation caused rock mass accumulated damages. Weathering and precipitation weakened the rock mass and finally induced shearing and tension failure. A huge block detached from the top rock slope, pushed the past landslide deposits in the middle part, rushed out of the slope bottom in a high velocity and buried the Xinmo Village. The rapid movement entrained and brought the soil into the Songping Gully which recoiled with and bounced back from the opposite mountain.     

Rolling motion behavior of rockfall on gentle slope: an experimental approach

The effects of slope surface material, slope gradient, block shape, and block mass conditions on rockfall rolling velocity were estimated with orthogonal test approach. Visual analysis shows that the importance of the factors is slope surface material > slope gradient > block shape > block mass. All the factors except block mass have the F value greater than the critical value, suggesting that these three factors are the key factors affecting the rockfall rolling velocity. Factor interaction analysis shows that the effect of the slope gradient relies largely on the slope surface conditions, and the block shape has little influence if the slope gradient is larger than a critical value. An empirical model considering the three key factors is proposed to estimate the rolling velocity, of which the error is limited to 5% of the testing value. This model is validated by 73 field tests, and the prediction shows excellent correlation with the site test. Thus, this analysis can be used as a tool in the rockfall behavior analysis.     

华北地区地壳水平运动演化特征研究

将华北地区划分为阴山-燕山、鄂尔多斯、山西、太行、冀鲁、胶辽6个块体，应用1995、1996、2001年GPS观测资料研究了这些块体的水平运动演化特征。结果显示出华北地区各块体的相对运动既有继承性也有差异性。华北各块体的总体水平运动趋势是向东漂移，但是个别块体，如鄂尔多斯块体，在1995～1996年期间出现了相对的西向运动。1995～1996年期间华北各块体的运动速率比1996～2001年期间的运动速率要大，特别是阴山-燕山块体。1995～1996年期间鄂尔多斯块体和相邻的山西块体表现为张性分离，阴山-燕山块体之间表现为左旋走滑，这一现象可能与1996～1999年期间发生在华北西北部的3个地震的孕震过程有关。进一步分析表明，加密的连续GPS观测可用于地震预报。     

The collision experiment between rolling stones of different shapes and protective cushion in open-pit mines

Though gravel cushions are used worldwide in open-pit mines and railway slopes to control the impact of rolling stones, no universal technical standards have been put in place to guide engineers in their correct design, and few laboratory test results are available with which to characterize collisions between rolling stones and a gravel cushion. We carried out a large number of experiments in which rolling stones made of the same material but differently shaped were dropped from various heights onto cushions with various particle sizes and thicknesses. We investigated the characteristics of the resulting collisions, and the relationships between coefficients of restitution(CORs) of blocks with different shape and release height H, cushion thickness h and particle diameter d are obtained through linear fitting method. Orthogonal testing reveals the relative influence of block shape, release height, and the particle size and thickness of the cushion on the collision characteristics, which can assist engineers in designing a gravel cushion suitable to the distribution and weathering characteristics of rolling stones in a specific area.     

不同临空条件的层状反倾岩质边坡倾倒变形几何特征参数影响规律

层状反倾岩质边坡是一种常见边坡类型，其变形破坏模式多样、力学机制复杂、影响因素众多。为揭示层状反倾岩质边坡不同临空条件几何特征参数对反倾边坡倾倒变形影响规律，通过3DEC并结合数理统计系统深入研究几何特征参数对倾倒变形影响。研究表明:①反倾边坡具有3个临空面时边坡变形最大，1个临空面时边坡变形最小；②变形随边坡高度、切坡角度增大而增大，随节理面与临空面夹角的增大而减小，随岩层厚度增大先增大后减小；③2个临空面夹角90°时边坡变形最大；④1个、2个临空面时节理倾角60°时位移最大，3个临空面时随节理倾角增大而增大。      

Mass-front velocity of dry granular flows influenced by the angle of the slope to the runout plane and particle size gradation

The mass-front velocities of granular flows results from the joint action of particle size gradations and the underlying surfaces.However,because of the complexity of friction during flow movement,details such as the slope-toe impedance effects and momentum-transfer mechanisms have not been completely explained by theoretical analyses,numerical simulations,or field investigations.To study the mass-front velocity of dry granular flows influenced by the angle of the slope to the runout plane and particle size gradations we conducted model experiments that recorded the motion of rapid and long-runout rockslides or avalanches.Flume tests were conducted using slope angles of 25°,35°,45°,and 55° and three particle size gradations.The resulting mass-front motions consisted of three stages:acceleration,velocity maintenance,and deceleration.The existing methods of velocity prediction could not explain the slowing effect of the slope toe or the momentum-transfer steady velocity stage.When the slope angle increased from 25° to 55°,the mass-front velocities dropped significantly to between 44.4% and59.6% of the peak velocities and energy lossesincreased from 69.1% to 83.7% of the initial,respectively.The velocity maintenance stages occurred after the slope-toe and mass-front velocity fluctuations.During this stage,travel distances increased as the angles increased,but the average velocity was greatest at 45°.At a slope angle of 45°,as the median particle size increased,energy loss around the slope toe decreased,the efficiency of momentum transfer increased,and the distance of the velocity maintenance stage increased.We presented an improved average velocity formula for granular flow and a geometrical model of the energy along the flow line.