Marine debris ingestion by Magellanic penguins, Spheniscus magellanicus (Aves: Sphenisciformes), from the Brazilian coastal zone

Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) are non-breeding winter visitors to the Brazilian coast. In 2008 and 2010, plastic items and other marine debris were found in the stomachs and intestines of 15% of 175 dead penguins collected in the Lagos Region of the state of Rio de Janeiro. One bird had its stomach perforated by a plastic straw, which may have caused its death. There are few records of penguins ingesting plastic litter, but previous studies have found similar levels of debris ingestion among Magellanic penguins stranded on the Brazilian coast (35.8% of 397 birds). The high incidence of marine debris in this species in Brazil may result at least in part from the predominance of juveniles reaching these waters, as juvenile penguins may have a broader diet than adults. It is unclear to what extent plastic ingestion affects the mortality rate in this species and whether the incidence in stranded birds reflects that in the entire population. The present study addresses the increasing impact of plastic debris on marine life.     

Chronic oil pollution harms Magellanic penguins in the Southwest Atlantic

Petroleum pollution is a problem for seabirds along the Southwest Atlantic coast. Twenty-five groups from Salvador, Brazil (12 degrees 58'S) to San Antonio Oeste, Argentina (40 degrees 43'S) survey or rehabilitate sick or oiled seabirds. Four groups, one each in Brazil and Uruguay, and two in Argentina, kept counts of birds found alive and in need of rehabilitation. An average of 63.7% of the seabirds found were Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus), with 3869 reported since 1987. Mainly adult penguins were found in Argentina (1605 of 2102 penguins of known age class) and Uruguay (158 of 197). Juveniles were most common in Brazil (234 of 325). Oil fouling was the most frequent cause of injury or sickness. The number of oiled penguins reported in their wintering range has greatly increased since the early 1990s and is strongly correlated with petroleum exports from Argentina. Our results show that chronic petroleum pollution is a problem for wildlife from Southern Brazil through Northern Argentina, and regulations and enforcement are failing to protect living resources.     

Survival and movements of Magellanic penguins rehabilitated from oil fouling along the coast of South America, 2000-2010

Oil pollution is a significant conservation concern. We examined data from six institutions along the coast of South America: Emergency Relief Team of the International Fund for Animal Welfare, Fundación Mundo Marino, Centro de Recupera??o de Animais Marinhos, Natura Patagonia, Associa??o R3 Animal, and Mar del Plata Aquarium and data from resightings in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Falkland/Malvinas Islands. From 2000 to 2010, 2183 oiled Magellanic penguins were rehabilitated as part of the routine activities of these institutions or during emergency responses to eight oil spills in which they were involved; all rehabilitated penguins were flipper banded and released. Since their release, 41 penguins were resighted until 31 December 2011. The results demonstrate that, when combined with other prevention strategies, the rehabilitation of Magellanic penguins is a strategy that contributes to the mitigation of adverse effects of oil spills and chronic pollution to the species.     

Gillnet fisheries as a major mortality factor of Magellanic penguins in wintering areas

The incidental capture in fisheries is probably the main conservation problem affecting seabirds. While the capture of albatrosses and petrels on longline hooks is well-known worldwide, the bycatch of diving seabirds in gillnets is an overlooked conservation problem. During a winter coastal fishing trip, the capture of Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) was recorded in driftnet and bottom setnet fisheries for the first time in southern Brazil. The highest captures rates were found in driftnets, from 146.5 to 545.5 penguins/km² of net and a total of 56 dead penguins were recorded. In the bottom gillnet, a total of 12 birds were killed and the capture rates varied from 41.7 to 125.0 penguins/km² of net. Although preliminary, the results presented in this paper were consistent between sets. If we consider the magnitude of driftnet and setnet fishing fleets, and that most dead penguins were adults, the impact upon Magellanic penguin populations is probably significant.     

Oiled Magellanic penguins in Golfo San Jose,Argentina

During a period of 4 months prior to the 1978–1979 breeding season, a total of 157 Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) were found dead on 1 km of beach in Golfo San Jose, a site in the vicinity of the largest nesting colony for this species in Argentina. Sixty-two of 91 adults (68%) were oiled, but only one of 66 immatures was oil-stained. Of the penguins with oil on one side only, three times as many were stained on the left side as on the right. The absence of oiled Magellanic penguins seen at nearby nesting colonies supports the hypothesis that these birds are not fit to breed.     

Mercury levels in feathers of Magellanic penguins

Feathers are useful to determine mercury (Hg) contamination. We evaluated the mercury concentration in feathers of Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) age 1.5 years to 25 years at Punta Tombo, Argentina before and during their molt. Mercury ranged between <1.4 and 367 ng/g dry weight, with three extreme high values (8996 ng/g, 3011 ng/g and 1340 ng/g) all in young adults. The median concentration was lowest for juveniles and significantly higher for adults but with high variation among older adults. Males and females had similar mercury loads. Compared with other penguin species, concentrations in Magellanic penguins were low. Mercury levels for Magellanic penguins in the Southwest Atlantic for older adults averaged 206±98 ng/g, and serve as a baseline for biomonitoring and/or ecotoxicological studies.     

ATLANTIC SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURES AND NEW ENGLAND SNOWFALL

This paper examines the possibility of an association between winter (December–March) snowfall in New England and sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTAs) in the adjacent Atlantic Ocean. Regional snowfall indices for southern and northern New England were obtained by rotated principal components analysis (PCA). Composite maps of winter Atlantic SSTAs and 700-mb geopotential height anomalies were generated for cases of above and below average winter snowfall totals for southern and northern New England, respectively. A monthly index of SSTAs around the coast of New England was obtained from rotated PCA of SSTAs in the western Atlantic Ocean and compared for high snow and low snow cases. In northern New England, no direct association between snowfall and SSTAs is indicated by either the composite maps or the monthly SSTA index — high or low snowfall totals can be attributed primarily to anomalies in the 700-mb circulation. In southern New England, high (low) snowfall totals are associated with negative (positive) SSTAs off the Atlantic coast, and these anomalies are often already evident in December, suggesting Atlantic sea surface temperatures may be of utility in long-range winter forecasts for coastal regions.     

Comparative analysis of upwelling influence between the western and northern coast of the Iberian Peninsula

Upwelling conditions have been simultaneously analyzed along the western and northern coast of the Iberian Peninsula in terms of wind forcing and water temperature response. The wind forcing analysis showed that the season under more upwelling favorable conditions corresponds to spring-summer (April-September) along the western coast and only to summer (June-August) along the northern one. Taking into account the upwelling period common to both coasts (June-August), it was observed that the occurrence of upwelling events simultaneously along both coasts is the most probable situation (∼46%) followed by upwelling unfavorable conditions also along both coasts (∼26%). The analysis of sea surface temperature data also showed the existence of an upwelling season in spring-summer along both coasts, although upwelling events are more frequent and intense along the western coast than along the northern one. Chlorophyll concentrations showed a high seasonal variability at the western coast with the highest concentrations values in spring-summer months while at the northern coast the maximum values were observed in spring and autumn.     

Temporal and spatial distribution of floating objects in coastal waters of central–southern Chile and Patagonian fjords

Floating objects are suggested to be the principal vector for the transport and dispersal of marine invertebrates with direct development as well as catalysts for carbon and nutrient recycling in accumulation areas. The first step in identifying the ecological relevance of floating objects in a specific area is to identify their spatio-temporal distribution. We evaluated the composition, abundance, distribution, and temporal variability of floating objects along the continental coast of central–southern Chile (33–42°S) and the Patagonian fjords (42–50°S) using ship surveys conducted in austral winter (July/August) and spring (November) of the years 2002–2005 and 2008. Potential sources of floating items were identified with the aid of publicly available databases and scientific reports. We found three main types of floating objects, namely floating marine debris (mainly plastic objects and Styrofoam), wood (trunks and branches), and floating kelps (Macrocystis pyrifera and Durvillaea antarctica). Floating marine debris were abundant along most of the examined transects, with markedly lower abundances toward the southern fjord areas. Floating marine debris abundances generally corresponded to the distribution of human activities, and were highest in the Interior Sea of Chiloé, where aquaculture activities are intense. Floating wood appeared sporadically in the study area, often close to the main rivers. In accordance with seasonal river run-off, wood was more abundant along the continental coast in winter (rainy season) and in the Patagonian fjords during the spring surveys (snow melt). Densities of the two floating kelp species were similar along the continental coast, without a clear seasonal pattern. M. pyrifera densities increased towards the south, peaking in the Patagonian fjords, where it was dominant over D. antarctica. Densities of M. pyrifera in the Patagonian fjords were highest in spring. Correlation analyses between the abundances of floating objects and the distance to the nearest sources were generally non-significant, suggesting that post-supply processes affect the distribution of the floating objects in the study region. The identification of several major retention zones supports this idea. Accumulation areas of floating objects appear to be more common in the fjord zones. In general, the results underscore the abundance of floating objects throughout the study region and the fact that floating marine debris sources are mostly local, whereas floating algae may be dispersed over greater distances. Future studies should focus on the ecological role of floating objects in biota dispersal and nutrient cycling.     

Trace organic contamination in the Americas: An overview of the US National Status & Trends and the International ‘Mussel Watch’ programmes

The National Status & Trends (NS&T, 1986–1993) and the International Mussel Watch (IMW, 1991–1992) programmes provide a good coverage of a broad range of environmental conditions along the North, Central and South American coasts. Total concentrations of DDTs, chlordane-related compounds, PCBs and PAHs present fairly homogeneous distributions along the northern Gulf of Mexico coast, with very few sites showing extremely high or low concentrations. In contrast, a larger variability in the geographical distribution of some of these organic contaminants was observed for IMW sites. For example, high concentrations of DDT and its metabolites, DDD and DDE, were generally found in tropical and subtropical areas as compared to more temperate zones of South America. ‘Industrial’ contaminants, such as PCBs and PAHs, have similar distributions with the highest concentrations encountered generally along the southern South Atlantic coast. An overall comparison of the concentrations of these organic contaminants measured at NS&T and IMW sites indicates that contamination is significantly higher along the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico.     

Oceanic upwelling and downwelling processes in waters off the west coast of India

A three-dimensional model based on the Princeton Ocean Model (POM) has been implemented to study the circulation of the west coast of India. The model uses a curvilinear orthogonal horizontal grid with higher resolution near the coast (3–9 km) and a terrain following sigma coordinate in the vertical. The model is able to simulate Lakshadweep High and Lakshadweep Low (LL) during the winter and summer monsoons, respectively. During winter, the downwelling processes noticed along the coast help in the formation of temperature inversions. The inversions can be seen even up to the depths of ～50 m, which agrees with the available ARGO data in the region. Model simulations show that coastal upwelling off Kerala is at its peak in July. The intensity of upwelling reduces along the coast towards north. During the existence of LL, there is a cyclonic eddy in the sub-surface waters over the South-Eastern Arabian Sea, with vertical extent up to the depths of 100–150 m and it is strengthened due to the presence of northward counter current in the shelf region. The southerly coastal jet formed along the southern coast as a result of upwelling is noticed a westward shift along with LL. The location of the eddy off Kerala is tilted towards the open ocean with depth and our experiments suggest that this flow can be understood as a first baroclinic mode.     

Characteristics of coastal trapped waves along the northern coast of the South China Sea during year?1990

The structures and evolution of the coastal-trapped waves (CTW) along the northern coast of the South China Sea (SCS) in the year?1990 are studied using observed hourly sea level records collected from four sites around the northern SCS and a three-dimensional numerical model with realistic bathymetry and wind forcing. Analysis of the yearlong records of the observed sea level data indicates that the sea level variations are highly correlated between the stations and the sea level variability propagates southwestward along the coast. The sea level signals traveling from northeast to southwest along the coast with a propagation speed of 5.5–17.9?m?s^?1 during both the typhoon season and the winter month show the characteristics of a CTW. The wave speed is faster between stations Shanwei and Zhapo than that between Xiamen and Shanwei. Sea level variations during both typhoon season and winter month are reasonably well represented by the numerical model. The model runs focused on the wave signals related to typhoons and winter storm show that the CTW propagating southwestward along the coast can be reinforced or decreased by the local wind forcing during its propagation and there are apparent differences in the propagation characteristics between the waves along the mainland and those traveling around Hainan Island. The abrupt change of the shelf width and coastline around Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan Island are responsible for strong scattering of CTWs from one mode into higher modes. The alongshore velocities across different transects associated with CTW are investigated to examine the vertical structures of the waves. The alongshore velocity structures at transects during different events are related to the combined effect of stratification and shelf profile, which can be estimated using the Burger number. The empirical orthogonal function analysis of alongshore velocity and nodal lines of the mode structure suggest mode two CTWs in transect S2 during typhoon season and mode 1 CTWs during winter. Sensitivity model experiments are also performed to demonstrate the effects of local wind and topography on the wave propagation.     

A relic coral fauna threatened by global changes and human activities, Eastern Brazil

Coral species composition of drilled cores from emergent bank reefs, and coral cover of the surface of old and living reefs located along the coast of the state of Bahia, Eastern Brazil, revealed that there is a marked change in the occurrence of the major building coral species in different time intervals of the reef structure, as well as in the living surface of reefs located in two different geographical sites. Holocene core sections from two reef areas (12 degrees 40'S-38 degrees 00'W and 18 degrees 00'S-39 degrees 00'W) have as major reef builders, on its topmost core interval (3 to 4 ky old), the endemic coral Mussismilia braziliensis Verrill, 1868, which also dominate on the 2.5-3.5 ky old surfaces of truncated reef tops. At the base of the cores (the 2m lower interval, older than 4 ky BP), another endemic coral Mussismilia harttii Verrill, 1868 is the dominant reef component. The relative abundance of M. braziliensis on the living surfaces of shallow reefs from both areas, shows that in the southern area, it is up to 98% on reefs located 60 km off the coast, in depths between 3 and 4m, but do not exceed 1.3% on the surface of the northern reefs located 1-2 km off the coast in depths 4-5m. The Holocene falling sea level that occurred along the coast of Brazil since 5.1 ky BP, causes an increasing runoff into the area of coastal reefs. This phenomenon may have affected the nearshore reef building fauna, replacing a more susceptive coral fauna with one better adapted to low light levels and higher sediment influx. The high turbidity associated with early Holocene shelf flooding, should also be responsible for the absence of M. braziliensis during the initial stages of reef buildup in Brazil. At the present time, the rapidly increasing human pressure, due to changes in land uses of the coastal zone (increasing sedimentation rate, nutrification of coastal waters, industrial pollution) and underwater practices, such as overfishing and an intense tourism, is aggravating the recovery capacity of this already naturally threatened coral community. If this situation coupled with increasing sea surface temperature persists, modern coral reef growth, in Brazil cannot be maintained and the major reef building coral species of the reefs in Bahia, a remnant endemic coral fauna will very soon appear in the list of endangered species.     

Ostreopsis cf. ovata (Dinophyta) bloom in an equatorial island of the Atlantic Ocean

The epi-benthic dinoflagellate Ostreopsis cf. ovata Fukuyo has an increasingly global distribution. In Brazil there are reports of O. cf. ovata along the coast from 8°S to 27°S latitude and blooms have been registered on the Rio de Janeiro coastline. In the current study, an O. cf. ovata bloom is reported at Saint Paul's Rocks (0°55'10″N; 29°20'33″W), between the southern and northern hemispheres. The Archipelago is not inhabited and not subjected to eutrophication, due to isolation, and sustains a number of endemic species. Therefore, blooms of O. cf. ovata may potentially cause demise to trophic chains by affecting marine invertebrates and vertebrates.     

A model study of the summer Southeast Vietnam Offshore Current in the southern South China Sea

The western boundary current in the southern South China Sea (SCS) in summer does not always flow northward along the Indo-China Peninsula, it leaves the southeast coast of peninsula around 10–14°N, forming a strong eastward jet called “Vietnam Coastal Current” or “Southeast Vietnam Offshore Current” (SVOC). It is known that the wind stress curl is the major driving factor responsible for this current. In this paper, we carry on the study of the separation position, strength and forming time of this current. A connected single-layer/two-layer model is employed here to study these problems. According to the numerical experiments and analyses of the vorticity dynamics, it is found that, the local wind stress curl (including the northern cyclonic and the southern anticyclonic wind forcing curl), the nonlinear term, the topographic effect, the planetary vorticity advection and the water exchange between the SCS and Java Sea via the Sunda Shelf have an important effect on both the position where this current leaves the coast and its strength; when there is an inflow via the Sunda Shelf, the current is stronger and the separation position is more northward; whereas the water stratification, the coastline and the inflow of Kuroshio have little effect on its separation. In fact, two opposite flowing currents, the northward SVOC and the southward western branch of the cyclonic eddy to its north near the Indo-China Peninsula, collide with each other, and the strength of these two currents determine the separation position of the SVOC. Origin of the SVOC may be driven by the local negative wind stress curl in the middle SCS in mid-spring, this current flows along the coast of the Indo-China Peninsula and leaves the coast at high latitude, flowing northeastward; once the local positive wind stress curl near the northern Indo-China Peninsula or the negative one near the southern Indo-China Peninsula is large enough, this current will begin to leave the coast at low latitude.     

Annual variation of sea surface height, dynamic topography and circulation in the South China Sea —— A TOPEX/Poseidon satellite altimetry study

The South China Sea (SCS) is a semi-enclosed deep basin with complex topography includ-ing broad continental shelves, steep slopes, and a large deep basin. It is dominated by prevailing southwest monsoon in summer and by much stronger northeast monsoon in…     

Annual variation of sea surface height,dynamic topography and circulation in the South China Sea

TOPEX/Poseidon satellite altimetry data from 1993 to 1999 were used to study mean annual variation of sea surface height anomaly (SSHA) in the South China Sea (SCS) and to reproduce its climatological monthly surface dynamic topography in conjunction with historical hydrographic data. The characters and rules of seasonal evolution of the SCS dynamic topography and its upper circulation were then discussed. Analyses indicate that annual variation of the SCS large-scale circulation could be divided into four major phases. In winter (from November to February), the SCS circulation is mainly controlled by double cyclonic gyres with domination of the northern gyre. Other corresponding features include the Kuroshio intrusion from the Luzon Strait and the northeastward off-shelf current in the area northwest off Kalimantan Island. The double gyre structure disassembled in spring (from March to April) when the northern gyre remains cyclonic, the southern gyre becomes anticyclonic, and the general circulation pattern shows a dipole. There is no obvious large-scale closed gyre inside the SCS basin in both summer (from May to July) and autumn (from August to October) when the SCS Monsoon Jet dominates the circulation, which flows northeastward across the SCS. Even so, circulation patterns of these two phases diverse significantly. From May to July, the SCS monsoon jet flows northward near the Vietnam coast and bends eastward along the topography southeast off Hainan Island at about 18°N forming an anticyclonic turn. It then turns northeastward after crossing the SCS. From August to October, however, the monsoon Jet leaves the coast of Vietnam and enters interior of the basin at about 13°N, and the general circulation pattern becomes cyclonic. The Kuroshio intrusion was not obvious in spring, summer and autumn. It is suggested from these observations that dynamic adjustment of the SCS circulation starts right after the peak period of the prevailing monsoon.     

Patos Lagoon outflow within the Río de la Plata plume using an airborne salinity mapper: Observing an embedded plume

Major river systems discharging into continental shelf waters frequently form buoyant coastal currents that propagate along the continental shelf in the direction of coastal trapped wave propagation (with the coast on the right/left, in the northern/southern hemisphere). The combined flow of the Uruguay and Paraná Rivers, which discharges freshwater into the Río de la Plata estuary (Lat. ∼36°S), often gives rise to a buoyant coastal current (the ‘Plata plume’) that extends northward along the continental shelf off Uruguay and Southern Brazil. Depending upon the prevailing rainfall, wind and tidal conditions, the Patos/Mirim Lagoon complex (Lat. ∼32°S) may also produce a freshwater outflow plume that expands across the inner continental shelf. Under these circumstances the Patos outflow plume can be embedded in temperature, salinity and current fields that are strongly influenced by the larger Plata plume. The purpose of this paper is to present observations of such an embedded plume structure and to determine the dynamical characteristics of the ambient and embedded plumes.     

Predicting the Human Losses Implied by Predictions of Earthquakes: Southern Sumatra and Central Chile

Predictions of earthquakes worldwide by the M8-MSc algorithm, which defines locations of Times of Increased Probability (TIPs), have been tested for nearly two decades, and the authors claim a high rate of success. Thus, it might be appropriate to ask what the consequences in terms of human losses may be if the expected earthquakes should occur. The loss estimating tool QUAKELOSS also has been tested in real-time mode during the last five years with success. Therefore, it is reasonable to estimate the order of magnitude of human losses if great earthquakes should occur in TIPs. Here I compare the consequences if M 8.5 earthquakes should happen in the current TIPs of southern Sumatra and central Chile (Kossobokov and Soloviev, 2008, centers at 4.75S/102.625E and 31.25S/71.77 W, respectively). The selection of the attenuation function is calibrated by matching theoretically calculated intensities and fatalities to the observed values in historic earthquakes. In both areas, the standard attenuation function I use is applicable. The results show that in southern Sumatra fatalities are expected to number fewer than 1,000 (possibly as much as a factor of 5 fewer), whereas they are likely to be larger than 1,000 (possibly as much as a factor six) in central Chile. These figures, however, do not account for possible tsunami effects. The difference is due to two factors. The earthquake sources are farther offshore, and there are only small settlements along the coast in southern Sumatra, whereas along the Chilean coast, large harbor cities are located in the northern part of the TIP area. Regardless of TIP predictions, large earthquakes are to be expected along the Chilean coast. Therefore, it seems advisable to implement mitigating measures in La Serena and Coquimbo, where most of the victims are expected.     

Blocking Episodes in the Southern Hemisphere: Impact on the Climate of Adjacent Continental Areas

This work presents an updated climatology of blocking episodes for the Southern Hemisphere between 1960 and 2000, based on data from NCEP/NCAR reanalysis. Five contiguous areas of blocking activity are considered; Southeastern Pacific, Southwestern Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Oceania. The impact of the three most important areas of onset blocking episodes (Southeastern Pacific, Atlantic and Oceania) upon the climate of the adjacent continental areas (South America and Australia) was evaluated. Composites of the meteorological variables (temperature and precipitation) were obtained for periods of diagnosed blockings. The impact of the blocking episodes over the climate of South America and Australia is highlighted whenever anomaly fields of temperature and precipitation are significant at the 5% and 10% levels, respectively. Impacts of Southeastern Pacific and Atlantic blockings are observed on the temperature field over several regions of South America. Significantly higher (lower) temperatures than climatology occur in southern Brazil, northern Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, and lower (higher) than climatology in the extreme south of South America for the Southeastern Pacific (Atlantic) blocking episodes. Precipitation over South America is also affected by the Southeastern Pacific and Atlantic blockings in different ways. The Southeastern Pacific blocking has higher impact on precipitation in summer (dry conditions in northeast Brazil) and spring (wet conditions in central and southern Brazil), while the Atlantic blocking affects precipitation in autumn and winter (wet conditions in parts of central and southern Brazil). The blocking cases over Oceania affect southeastern Australia with normal to higher than climatological precipitation and with negative temperature anomalies in that region. Finally we provide a detailed analysis of a South Atlantic blocking episode, which occurred between the 4^th and the 8^th of June 1997. This event shows clearly the split of the jet stream into two branches (subtropical and polar) surrounding the anticyclonic sector, and satellite imagery revealed the presence of transient systems in the periphery of the blocking anticyclone responsible for high values of precipitation in the southeastern sector of South America.