Die Eiskeimbildung bei Temperaturen unter −30° C

Zusammenfassung An künstlich erzeugten unterkühlten Nebeln wurde die Eiskeimbildung his –85°C untersucht. Bei tiefen Temperaturen treten so hohe Eisteilchendichten auf, daß sie erst an fotografischen Aufnahmen der Eiswolken bei geeigneter Vergrösserung bestimmt werden konnten. Die von anderer Seite bei –40°C behauptete und mit homogener Keimbildung gedeutete Vervielfachung der Eisteilchenzahl konnte nicht festgestellt werden. Meistens steigt die Teilchendichte spätestens bei –30°C stark an, bleibt dann aber zwischen –40°C und –65°C praktisch konstant bei im Mittel 174 Eisteilchen pro cm³. Dieser Uebergang, der an der vollständigen Vereisung der Tröpfchenwolke direkt zu erkennen ist, findet je nach Wetterlage zwischen –40 und –50°C statt und muß somit noch durch Gefrierkerne hervorgerufen sein.Erst bei Annäherung an –70°C bilden sich in Uebereinstimmung mit früheren Ergebnissen des Verf. ausserordentlich dichte und beständige Nebel aus feinsten Eisteilchen mit. Anzeichen von homogener Bildung.

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Summary The formation of ice germs down to –85°C was investigated with artificial supercooled nebula. At low temperatures the densities of ice particles are so high that they could only be determined by photographs of the ice clouds with suitable enlargements. The multiplication of the number of ice particles which, according to assertions from another side, should take place at –40°C and which was interpreted by homogeneous formation of germs, could not be ascertained. In most cases the density of particles increases considerably at –30° at the latest, and then remains practically constant between –40 and –65°C with an average of 174 ice particles per cm³. This transition which can directly be observed at the complete icing of the cloud of droplets, takes place — according to the weather conditions —between –40 and –50°C and must, therefore, also be caused by freezing nuclei.Extremely dense and constant nebula consisting of the finest ice particles with signs of homogeneous formation are only formed with an approximation to –70°C, which is in good agreement with earlier results of the author.

     

An investigation into the properties of atmospheric freezing nuclei and sea-salt nuclei under maritime conditions at the West Coast of Ireland

Summary Parallel measurements of the concentration of freezing nuclei and sea-salt particles carried out on the west coast of Ireland during summer 1958 to study the activity of sea-salt particles in the process of ice-nucleation of supercooled clouds are described and discussed. The results indicate that the concentration of freezing nuclei, active above –30°C, has no relationship to that of the sea-salt particles. A pronounced increase of the freezing nucleus concentration was observed during advection from the mainland showing that even under maritime conditions the most active freezing nuclei are particles of continental origin.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird über parallele Messungen der Gefrierkerne und der Seesalzkerne berichtet, die im Sommer 1958 an der irischen Westküste durchgeführt wurden, um die Wirkung der Seesalzkerne für den Gefrierprozess in unterkühlten Wolken zu studieren. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass zwischen der Konzentration der im Temperaturbereich zwischen 0°C und –30°C aktiven Gefrierkerne und den Seesalzkernen keinerlei Beziehung besteht. Eine starke Erhöhung der Gefrierkernzahl bei Advektion von Aerosolen vom Festland deutet an, dass auch unter maritimen Bedingungen, Teilchen kontinentaler Herkunft besonders aktive Gefrierkerne sind.

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Dedicated to Senior ProfessorL. W. Pollak, Ph. D., M.R.I.A. on his seventieth birthday.

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The research reported in this article has been sponsored and supported in part by the Geophysics Research Directorate of the Air Force Cambridge Research Center. Air Research and Development Command, United States Air Force, under Contracts AF 61(052)-26 and AF 61(514)-927, through the European Office, ARDC in Brussels.     

A fracture mechanics study of subcritical tensile cracking of quartz in wet environments

Load relaxation and cross-head displacement rate-change experiments have been used to establish log₁₀ stress intensity factor (K) versus log₁₀ crack velocity (v) diagrams for double torsion specimens, of synthetic quartz cracked on thea plane in liquid water and moist air.For crack propagation normal toz and normal tor at 20°C,K _Ic (the critical stress intensity factor) was found to be 0.852±0.045 MN·m^–3/2 and 1.002±0.048 MN·m^–3/2, respectively.Subcritical crack growth at velocities from 10^–3 m·s^–1 to 10^–9 m·s^–1 at temperatures from 20°C to 80°C is believed to be facilitated by chemical reaction between the siloxane bonds of the quartz and the water or water vapour of the environment (stress corrosion). The slopes, of isotherms in theK-v diagrams are dependent upon crystallographic orientation. The isotherms have a slope of 12±0.6 for cracking normal tor and 19.9±1.7 for cracking normal toz. The activation enthalpy for crack propagation in the former orientation in liquid water at temperatures from 20°C to 80°C is 52.5±3.8 kJ·mole^–1.A discussion is presented of the characteristics of theK-v diagrams for quartz.     

Anomalies of Thermomagnetic Characteristics of Lower Cretaceous Red-Beds in the Tadjik Depression (Southern Tien-Shan)

The paper features data on thermomagnetic characteristics of the red-bed sediments of the Lower Cretaceous of the Tadjik depression which turned out to be somewhat anomalous. The thermomagnetic characteristics of monolithic samples are stable under long-term heating (2–3 hours) at high temperature (600°–700°C). At the same time, the thermomagnetic characteristics of the powders, obtained from heated monolithic samples, display instability under even lesser temperatures. During heating at 600°–700°C, part of the hematite, dispersed in the rock, turns into stable maghemite. Disintegration of the monoliths changes the properties of the secondary maghemite - it becomes unstable to heating and at temperatures of 550°-600°C irreversibly changes into hematite.     

Effect of displacement rate on the real area of contact and temperatures generated during frictional sliding of Tennessee sandstone

Summary The real area of contact has been determined, and measurements of the maximum and average surface temperatures generated during frictional sliding along precut surfaces in Tennessee sand-stone have been made, through the use of thermodyes. Triaxial tests have been made at 50 MPa confining pressure and constant displacement rates of 10^–2 to 10^–6 cm/sec, and displacements up to 0.4 om. At 0.2 cm of stable sliding, the maximum temperature decreases with decreasing nominal displacement rate from between 1150° to 1175°C at 10^–2 cm/sec to between 75° to 115°C at 10^–3 cm/sec. The average temperature of the surface is between 75 and 115°C at 10^–2 cm/sec, but shows no rise from room temperature at 10^–3 cm/sec. At 0.4 cm displacement, and in the stick-slip mode, as the nominal displacement rate decreases from 10^–3 to 10^–6 cm/sec, the maximum temperature decreases from between 1120° to 1150°C to between 1040° to 1065°C. The average surface temperature is 115° to 135°C at displacement rates from 2.6×10^–3 to 10^–4 cm/sec.With a decrease in the displacement rate from 10^–2 to 10^–6 cm/sec, the real area of contact increases from about 5 to 14 percent of the apparent area; the avergge area of asperity contact increases from 2.5 to 7.5×10^–4 cm². Although fracture is the dominate mechanism during stick-up thermal softening and creep may also contribute to the unstable sliding process.     

Sulla genesi delle precipitazioni

Riassunto In base a diverse serie di osservazioni meteorologiche raccolte su alte montagne, specie delle Alpi, l'A. dimostra che la conservazione della nebbia sottoraffreddata e la genesi delle precipitazioni nevose, sono regolate dalle temperature intorno a –11°, –4°–5° e –19° C, in completo accordo con lo spettro dei nuclei di congelamento dedotto sperimentalmente. Il risultato ha validità generale. — Segue l'illustrazione di talune deduzioni, con considerazioni interpretative.

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Summary Making use of different series of meterological observations carried out in high mountains, particularly in the Alps, the Author proves that the conservations-tendency of undercooled fog and the formation of snow are essentially controlled by the air-temperatures around –11°, –4°–5° and –19°C, in perfect agreement with the spectrum of freezing nuclei, known from laboratory work. The result is of general validity. — Some interpretations are presented.

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Zusammenfassung Auf Grund verschiedenen, im Hochgebirge, besonders in den Alpen, gesammelten meteorologischen Beobachtungsreihen, beweist der Verf., das die Erhaltungstendenz des unterkühlten Nebels und die Schneebildung wesentlich mitbestimmt werden durch die Luft-Temperaturen um –11°, –4°–5° und –19° C, in vollkommener Uebereinstimmung mit dem experimentell abgeleiten Spektrum der Gefrierkerne. Das Ergebnis hat allgemeine Gültigkeit. — Es folgen einige erläuternde Betrachtungen.

     

Mid-latitude atmospheres,winter and summer

Summary Winter and summer Mid-Latitude (45^oN) atmospheres to 90 km, two of a family of nine atmospheres supplemental to the U.S. Standard Atmosphere (1962), provide information on atmospheric structure by seasons rather than the mean annual data shown in the Standard, which is described for reference. Principal data sources for constructing these atmospheres consisted of summaries of Northern Hemisphere radiosonde observations at stations near, 45^oN, and observations made from rockets and instruments released by rockets, from nearly a dozen Northern Hemisphere launching sites.Winter and summer temperature-height profiles begin with surface temperatures of –1° and +21 °C, respectively, and contain three isothermal layers: –58°C at 19 to 27 km in winter and –57.5°C at 13 to 17 km in summer; –7.5° and +2.5°C at 47 to 52 km; and –79.5 and –99°C at 80 to 90 km, respectively. The temperature-height curve for the U.S. Standard has a surface temperature of +15°C with isothermal regions at 11 to 20 km (–56.5°C), 47 to 52 km (–2.5°C), and 80 to 90 km (–92.5°C). In all three atmospheres, temperature gradients for various segments are linear with geopotential, height. Humidity is incorporated into the lowest 10 km of the Supplemental Atmospheres, whereas the Standard is dry. Figures and tables depict temperature, relative humidity, pressure, and density for winter and summer, and temperature, pressure, density, speed of sound, and dynamic viscosity for the U.S. Standard Atmosphere.The Supplemental Atmospheres are mutually consistent; zonal wind profiles, computed from the geostrophic wind equation and selected pressure heights, compare favorably with existing radiosonde and rocket wind observations.     

The hydrothermal system of Volcan Puracé, Colombia

This paper presents chemical and isotopic data for thermal waters, gases and S deposits from Volcan Puracé (summit elevation 4600 m) in SW Colombia. Hot gas discharges from fumaroles in and around the summit crater, and thermal waters discharge from three areas on its flanks. The waters from all areas have D values of-75±1, indicating a single recharge area at high elevation on the volcano. Aircorrected values of³He/⁴He in thermal waters range from 3.8 to 6.7 R_A, and approach those for crater fumarole gas (6.1–7.1 R_A), indicating widespread addition of magmatic volatiles. An economic S deposit (El Vinagre) is being mined in the Rio Vinagre fault zone at 3600 m elevation. Sulfur isotopic data are consistent with a magmatic origin for S species in thermal waters and gases, and for the S ore deposit. Isotopic equilibration between S species may have occurred at 220±40°C, which overlaps possible equilibration temperatures (170±40°C) determined by a variety of other geothermometers for neutral thermal waters. Apparent CH₄–CO₂ equilibration temperatures for gases from thermal springs (400±50°C) and crater fumaroles (520±60°C) reflect higher temperatures deeper in the system. Hot magmatic gas ascending through the Rio Vinagre fault zone is though to have precipitated S and generated thermal waters by interaction with descending meteoric waters.     

Stress And Seismicity In The Lower Continental Crust: A Challenge To Simple Ductility And Implications For Electrical Conductivity Mechanisms

The lower crust is generally considered to be an aseismic, weak zone where fluid distribution might be governed by textural equilibrium geometries. Saline fluids below the transition from brittle to ductile rheology have been advanced as a joint explanation for deep crustal conductivity and seismic reflectivity, the depth of onset of both phenomena being apparently bounded by isotherms in the 300–450 °C temperature range. Some petrologists, meanwhile, contest that the deep crust should be devoid of extensive fluid networks. This review exposes some geophysical exceptions to the statistical norm suggested by global geophysical data compilations and presents counter-arguments that the lower crust in places may be both dry and strong, that fluids if at all present at such depths may not necessarily be connected and that fluid mobility in the lower crust may be more limited and heterogeneous than commonly assumed.Laboratory data on crustal rocks implies that the transition from brittle to ductile rheology actually occurs over a much broader range of temperatures than 300–450 °C, and the apparent association of deep crustal conductive horizons with a temperature field of 300–450 °C may be interpretable in terms of formation temperatures of graphite, rather than fluids and brittle-ductile transition rheology.High v_P/v_S ratios from a 6 km thick, seismically layered zone below the Weardale granite, NE England can be explained by underplated mafic material. They are unlikely to be explained by fluids in an area where deep crustal conductance has been shown to be relatively low, unless conventional assumptions regarding deep crustal fluid distribution are inadequate or false.Perusal of the literature reveals that lower crustal seismicity is less seldom than generally appreciated. Interpretation of earthquakes nucleating at lower crustal depths is ambiguous, but in some tectonic regimes may indicate preservation of brittle rheology to the Moho and a lower crust that is predominantly mafic and dry.A better understanding of lower crustal deformation mechanisms and history may provide better insight into deep crustal conductivity mechanisms. Recent rock mechanical experiments suggest that permeability (and thus fluid connectivity) may be decreased by ductile shearing, whereas ductile shearing may aid graphitisation at lower crustal temperatures. If the lower crust in some regions is strong, this may explain the apparent preservation of both extant- and palaeostress orientations in interpretations involving electrical anisotropy.     

Hydrogeochemistry of the Simav geothermal field, western Anatolia, Turkey

Thermal waters hosted by Menderes metamorphic rocks emerge along fault lineaments in the Simav geothermal area. Thermal springs and drilled wells are located in the Eynal, Çitgöl and Na a locations, which are part of the Simav geothermal field. Studies were carried out to obtain the main chemical and physical characteristics of thermal waters. These waters are used for heating of residences and greenhouses and for balneological purposes. Bottom temperatures of the drilled wells reach 163°C with total dissolved solids around 2225 mg/kg. Surface temperatures of thermal springs vary between 51°C and 90°C. All the thermal waters belong to Na–HCO₃–SO₄ facies. The cold groundwaters are Ca–Mg–HCO₃ type. Dissolution of host rock and ion-exchange reactions in the reservoir of the geothermal system shift the Ca–Mg–HCO₃ type cold groundwaters to the Na–HCO₃–SO₄ type thermal waters. Thermal waters are oversaturated at discharge temperatures for aragonite, calcite, quartz, chalcedony, magnesite and dolomite minerals giving rise to a carbonate-rich scale. Gypsum and anhydrite minerals are undersaturated with all of the thermal waters. Boiling during ascent of the thermal fluids produces steam and liquid waters resulting in an increase of the concentrations of the constituents in discharge waters. Steam fraction, y, of the thermal waters of which temperatures are above 100°C is between 0.075 and 0.119. Reservoir pH is much lower than pH measured in the liquid phase separated at atmospheric conditions, since the latter experienced heavy loss of acid gases, mainly CO₂. Assessment of the various empirical chemical geothermometers and geochemical modelling suggest that reservoir temperatures vary between 175°C and 200°C.     

Physical,radiative, and dynamical processes within a nighttime marine stratus cloud

Observations taken by aircraft and conventional platforms are used to investigate dynamical, physical, and radiative processes within a marine stratus cloud during the Canadian Atlantic Storms Program (CASP) II field project which took place over the east coast of Canada. Stratus which formed over the ocean on February 6, 1992 during the nighttime, is studied to analyze cloud top and base processes. The cloud was supercooled during the study period. Fluctuations and fluxes are calculated along constant flight altitude legs approximately 100 km long in space. The scales of structures larger than 5 km are removed from the analysis using a running average technique. Droplet spectra obtained by a forward scattering spectrometer probe (FSSP) were used in a 1-D radiative transfer model to calculate infrared (IR) fluxes and radiative heating rates. A heat conservation equation was used to estimate vertical air velocity (w _a ) within the cloud. The results showed that, because of a warmer ocean surface, significant moisture and heat were transferred from the ocean surface to the boundary layer. The cloud base was at about 400 m height and the top was at about 1.4 km.w _a at the cloud base was estimated about 5 cm s^–1. Strong IR cooling rate at the cloud top was calculated to be 75°C day^–1 for a 100 m thick layer. Negative skewness inw _a , suggesting narrow downdrafts, was likely due to radiative cooling at the cloud top. The entrainment velocity was found to be about 1.5 cm s^–1 at cloud top. Mean moisture and heat fluxes within the cloud were estimated to be comparable to those from the ocean surface. Vertical air velocity at the cloud top due to radiative cooling was found to be about –40 cm s^–1.     

Traces of NO 3 ′ ions contained in ice crystals influence charge separation upon crystal fragmentation

Summary If needle-shaped ice crystals are grown in an atmosphere containing traces of nitrous gases, the amount of electrical charge generated when sharp crystal points break away, is between 10 and 50 times as high as in the case of crystals grown in absence of nitrous gases A definite relation has been found to exist between the NO ₃ ion concentration of the ice crytals and the amount of charge (average value 2.7×10^–8, maximum value 13×10^–8 coulombs per gram of ice splinters) generated upon fragmentation. The relation found is possibly of importance with respect to thunderstorm electricity generation.Physikalisch-Bioklimatische Forschungsstelle der Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, Garmisch-Partenkirchen.     

Evaluation of gases,condensates, and SO2 emissions from Augustine volcano,Alaska: the degassing of a Cl-rich volcanic system

After the March–April 1986 explosive eruption a comprehensive gas study at Augustine was undertaken in the summers of 1986 and 1987. Airborne COSPEC measurements indicate that passive SO₂ emission rates declined exponentially during this period from 380±45 metric tons/day (T/D) on 7/24/86 to 27±6 T/D on 8/24/87. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that the Augustine magma reservoir has become more degassed as volcanic activity decreased after the spring 1986 eruption. Gas samples collected in 1987 from an 870°C fumarole on the andesitic lava dome show various degrees of disequilibrium due to oxidation of reduced gas species and condensation (and loss) of H₂O in the intake tube of the sampling apparatus. Thermochemical restoration of the data permits removal of these effects to infer an equilibrium composition of the gases. Although not conclusive, this restoration is consistent with the idea that the gases were in equilibrium at 870°C with an oxygen fugacity near the Ni–NiO buffer. These restored gas compositions show that, relative to other convergent plate volcanoes, the Augustine gases are very HCl rich (5.3–6.0 mol% HCl), S rich (7.1 mol% total S), and H₂O poor (83.9–84.8 mol% H₂O). Values of D and ¹⁸O suggest that the H₂O in the dome gases is a mixture of primary magmatic water (PMW) and local seawater. Part of the Cl in the Augustine volcanic gases probably comes from this shallow seawater source. Additional Cl may come from subducted oceanic crust because data by Johnston (1978) show that Cl-rich glass inclusions in olivine crystals contain hornblende, which is evidence for a deep source (>25km) for part of the Cl. Gas samples collected in 1986 from 390°–642°C fumaroles on a ramp surrounding the inner summit crater have been oxidized so severely that restoration to an equilibrium composition is not possible. H and O isotope data suggest that these gases are variable mixtures of seawater, FMW, and meteoric steam. These samples are much more H₂O-rich (92%–97% H₂O) than the dome gases, possibly due to a larger meteoric steam component. The 1986 samples also have higher Cl/S, S/C, and F/Cl ratios, which imply that the magmatic component in these gases is from the more degassed 1976 magma. Thus, the 1987 samples from the lava dome are better indicators than the 1986 samples of degassing within the Augustine magma reservoir, even though they were collected a year later and contain a significant seawater component. Future gas studies at Augustine should emphasize fumaroles on active lava domes. Condensates collected from the same lava-dome fumarole have enrichments ot 10⁷–10² in Cl, Br, F, B, Cd, As, S, Bi, Pb, Sb, Mo, Zn, Cu, K, Li, Na, Si, and Ni. Lower-temperature (200°–650°C) fumaroles around the volcano are generally less enriched in highly volatile elements. However, these lower-termperature fumaroles have higher concentration of rock-forming elements, probably derived from the wall rock.     

Differentiation and magma mixing on Kilauea's east rift zone

The lavas of the 1955 east rift eruption of Kilauea Volcano have been the object of considerable petrologic interest for two reasons. First, the early 1955 lavas are among the most differentiated ever erupted at Kilauea, and second, the petrographic character and chemical composition of the lava being erupted changed significantly during the eruption. This shift, from more differentiated (MgO=5.0–5.7%) to more magnesian (MgO=6.2–6.8%) lava, has been variously interpreted, as either due to systematic excavation of a zoned, differentiated magma body, or to invasion of the differentiated magma by more primitive magma, followed by rapid mixing and eruption of the resulting hybrid magmas. Petrologic examination of several nearvent spatter samples of the late 1955 lavas shows abundant evidence for magma mixing, including resorbed and/or reversely zoned crystals of olivine, augite and plagioclase. In addition, the compositional ranges of olivine, plagioclase and groundmass sulfide are very large, implying that the assemblages are hybrid. Core compositions of olivine phenocrysts range from Fo85 to Fo77. The most magnesian olivines in these samples must have originally crystallized from a melt containing 8.0–8.5% MgO, which is distinctly more magnesian than the bulk composition of the late 1955 lavas. The majorelement and trace-element data are either permissive or supportive of a hybrid origin for the late 1955 lavas. In particular, the compositional trends of the 1955 lavas on plots of CaO vs MgO, and the virtual invariance of Al₂O₃ and Sr in these plagioclase-phyric lavas are more easily explained by magma mixing than by fractionation. The pattern of internal disequilibrium/re-equilibration in the late 1955 spatter samples is consistent with reintrusion and mixing having occurred at least twice, during the latter part of the 1955 eruption. Plagioclase zonation preserves possible evidence for additional, earlier reintrusion events. Least-squares modelling the mixing of early 1955 bulk compositions with various summit lavas±olivine pick the 1952 summit lava as most like the primitive component. The results also indicate the primitive component had MgO=7.5–8.0%, corresponding to liquidus temperatures of 1165–1175°C. The absence of Fe-Ti oxide phenocrysts in the late 1955 lavas implies that the cooler component of the hybrid had T>1110°C. Thus the thermal contrast between the two components may have been as much as 55–65°C, sufficient to produce the conspicuous disequilibrium effects visible in the spatter samples.     

Viscosity measurements of subliquidus magmas: Alkali olivine basalt from the Higashi-Matsuura district, Southwest Japan

We carried out viscosity measurements and sampling of a crystal suspension derived from alkali olivine basalt from the Matsuura district, SW Japan, at subliquidus temperatures from 1230 °C to 1140 °C under 1 atm with NNO oxygen buffered conditions. Viscosity increased from 31 to 1235 Pa s with a decrease in temperature from 1230 to 1140 °C. On cooling, olivine first appeared at 1210 °C, followed by plagioclase at 1170 °C. The crystal content of the sample attained 31 vol.% at 1140 °C (plagioclase 22%, olivine 9%). Non-Newtonian behaviors, including thixotropy and shear thinning, were pronounced in the presence of tabular plagioclase crystals. The cause of such behavior is discussed in relation to shear-induced changes in melt–crystal textures. Relative viscosities, η_r (= η_s / η_m, where η_s and η_m are the viscosities of the suspension and the melt, respectively), were obtained by calculating melt viscosities from the melt composition and temperature at 1 atm using the equation proposed by Giordano and Dingwell [Giordano, D., Dingwell, D.B., 2003. Non-Arrhenian multicomponent melt viscosity: a model. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 208, 337–349.]. The obtained relative viscosities are generally consistent with the Einstein–Roscoe relation, which represents η_r for suspensions that contain equant and equigranular crystals, even though the crystal suspension analyzed in the present experiments contained tabular plagioclase and granular olivine of various grain sizes. This consistency is attributed to the fact that the effect of crystal shape was counterbalanced by the effect of the dispersion of crystal size. The applicability of the Einstein–Roscoe equation with respect to crystal shape is discussed on the basis of the present experimental results. Our experiments and those of Sato [Sato, H., 2005. Viscosity measurement of subliquidus magmas: 1707 basalt of Fuji volcano. Journal of Mineralogical and Petrological Sciences, 100, 133–142.] show that the relationship between relative viscosity and crystal fraction is consistent with the Einstein–Roscoe relationship for axial ratios that are smaller than the critical value of 4–6.5, but discrepancies occur for higher ratios.     

Petrology and Fe–Ti oxide reequilibration of the 1991 Mount Unzen mixed magma

A dacitic magma (64.5 wt.% SiO₂), a mixture of phenocryst-rich rhyodacite and an aphyric mafic magma, was erupted during the recent 1991–1995 Mount Unzen eruptive cycle. The experimental and analytical results of this study reveal additional details about conditions in the premixing and postmixing magmas, and the nature of the mixing process. The preeruption rhyodacitic magma was at a temperature of 790±20°C according to Fe–Ti oxide phenocryst cores, and at a depth of 6 to 7 km (160 MPa) according to Al-in-hornblende geobarometry. The mafic magma that mixed with the rhyodacite is found as andesitic (54 to 62 wt.% SiO₂) enclaves in the erupted magma and was essentially aphyric when intruded. Phase equilibria indicate that an aphyric andesite at 160 MPa is >1030°C (H₂O-saturated) and possibly as high as 1130°C (2 wt.% H₂O). The composition of the rhyodacite which was mixed with the andesite is estimated to lie between 67 and 69 wt.% SiO₂. Using these compositions and temperatures, the temperature of the Unzen magma after mixing is estimated to be at least 850° to 870°C. The groundmass Fe–Ti oxide microphenocrysts and those in pargasite-bearing reaction zones around biotite phenocrysts both give 890±20°C temperatures; the oxide–oxide contacts give temperatures of 910±20°C. The 900±30°C postmixing temperatures are consistent with phase-equilibria experiments which show that the magma was not above 930°C at 160 MPa. Our Fe–Ti oxide reequilibration experiments suggest that the mixing of the two magmas began within a few weeks of the eruption, which is a shorter time than is calculated using available diffusion data. There is also evidence that some mixing took place much closer to the time of extrusion based on the presence of unrimmed biotite phenocrysts in the magma.     

Magnetic properties,self-reversal remanence and thermal alteration products of smythite

Summary This study is a follow up of the investigation of some magnetic properties and metastability of greigite in samples obtained from Miocene claystones in the Kruné hory (Erzgebirge) Piedmont basins (Bohemia). Three different methods of upgrading the smythite were applied; the magnetic properties of the concentrates are compared. The thermal conversion of smythite sets in at 200°C while greigite converts at 250°C. The first intermediate products to be formed are iron sulphides, marcasite clearly dominating over pyrite and pyrrhotite. Apart from a Fe³⁺ sulphate with a composition of Fe₂(SO₄)₃, oxidation of these sulphides gives rise to -Fe₂O₃. The result of the subsequent decomposition of the mentioned sulphate is the formation of -Fe₂O₃, which retains the sulphate structure. The final product of the thermal decomposition at 800°C is -Fe₂O₃. In the smythite concentrate the conversion to Fe³⁺ sulphate and -Fe₂O₃ is about twice as intensive as in greigite. No direct conversion to -Fe₂O₃ was found. During the thermal process self-reversals of remanence were observed, in various samples as many as four reversals in the temperature interval from 340 to 590°C. The occurrences of self-reversals of remanence were only observed at high degrees of thermal demagnetization, of the order of 10^–2 down to 10^–3 in the temperature interval of sulphide origin (below 400°C), and of the order of 10^–4 down to 10^–6 in the temperature interval of Fe-oxides origin (above 400°C).Presented at the 3rd Conference on New Trends in Geomagnetism, Castle of Smolenice, Czechoslovakia, June 22–29, 1992     

Chemical geothermometry and fluid–mineral equilibria for the Ömer–Gecek thermal waters, Afyon area, Turkey

Thermal waters of the Ömer–Gecek geothermal field, Turkey, with temperatures ranging from 32 to 92°C vary in chemical composition and TDS contents. They are generally enriched in Na–Cl–HCO₃ and suggest deep water circulation. Silica and cation geothermometers applied to the Ömer–Gecek thermal waters yield reservoir temperatures of 75–155°C. The enthalpy–chloride mixing model, which approximates a reservoir temperature of 125°C for the Ömer–Gecek field, accounts for the diversity in the chemical composition and temperature of the waters by a combination of processes including boiling and conductive cooling of deep thermal water and mixing of the deep thermal water with cold water. It is also determined that the solubility of silica in most of the waters is controlled by the chalcedony phase. Equilibrium states of the Ömer–Gecek thermal waters studied by means of the Na–K–Mg triangular diagram, Na–K–Mg–Ca diagram, K–Mg–Ca geoindicator diagram, activity diagrams in the systems composed of Na₂O–CaO–K₂O–Al₂O₃–SiO₂–CO₂–H₂O phases, log SI diagrams, and finally the alteration mineralogy indicate that most of the spring and low-temperature well waters in the area can be classified as shallow or mixed waters which are likely to be equilibrated with calcite, chalcedony and kaolinite at predicted temperature ranges similar to those calculated from the chemical geothermometers. It was also observed that mineral equilibrium in the Ömer–Gecek waters is largely controlled by CO₂ concentrations.