Petrogenesis of the end-Cretaceous diamondiferous Behradih orangeite pipe: implication for mantle plume–lithosphere interaction in the Bastar craton,Central India

We present mineral chemistry, geochemistry and Sr and Nd isotope data of drillcore samples from the Late Cretaceous (65 Ma), diamondiferous Behradih ultramafic pipe, Bastar craton, Central India, which is emplaced synchronous with the Deccan flood basalt eruption. The rock is affected by pervasive serpentine–talc–carbonate alteration and consists of pelletal lapilli and variously sized olivine and phlogopite macrocrysts, set in a groundmass of abundant clinopyroxene, chrome spinel, apatite, Fe-rich perovskite (<50 μm), zircon, titanite, rutile and calcite. Mineralogical studies identify the Behradih pipe as orangeite (formerly termed as Group II kimberlite) and establish the occurrence of such rocks outside the Kaapvaal craton, southern Africa. As the age of the Behradih orangeite overlaps with that of the main phase of the Deccan flood basalt magmatism, we infer a common tectonomagmatic control vis-a-vis the Deccan-related mantle plume. Trace element ratios and the Nd isotope signatures of the Behradih pipe imply that the Deccan plume has only contributed heat, but not substantial melt, to the Behradih magma with a cause-and-consequence relationship between them. Our study highlights (a) a striking similarity in the genesis of Late Cretaceous orangeites associated with the continental flood basalts in the Kaapvaal and Bastar cratons but related to different mantle plumes and (b) the role of plume–lithosphere interaction in the generation of orangeites.     

Magma chamber processes in central volcanic systems of Iceland: constraints from layered gabbro of the Austurhorn intrusive complex

New field work and petrological investigations of the largest gabbro outcrop in Iceland, the Hvalnesfjall gabbro of the 6–7 Ma Austurhorn intrusive complex, have established a stratigraphic sequence exceeding 800 m composed of at least 8 macrorhythmic units. The bases of the macrorhythmic units are composed of 2–10 m thick melanocratic layers rich in clinopyroxene and sometimes olivine, relative to the thicker overlying leucocratic oxide gabbros. While the overall compositional variation is limited (Mg# clinopyroxene 72–84; An% plagioclase 56–85), the melanocratic bases display spikes in Mg# and Cr₂O₃ of clinopyroxene and magnetite indicative of magma replenishment. Some macrorhythmic units show mineral trends indicative of up-section fractional crystallisation over up to 100 m, whereas others show little variation. Two populations of plagioclase crystals (large, An-rich and small, less An-rich) indicate that the recharge magma carried plagioclase xenocrysts (high An-type). The lack of evolved gabbros suggests formation in a dynamic magma chamber with frequent recharge, tapping and fractionation. Modelling of these compositional trends shows that the parent magma was similar to known transitional olivine basalts from Iceland that had undergone about 20% crystallisation of olivine, plagioclase and clinopyroxene and that the macrorhythmic units formed from thin magma layers not exceeding 200–300 m. Such a “mushy” magma chamber is akin to volcanic plumbing systems in settings of high magma supply rate including the mid-ocean ridges and present-day magma chambers over the Iceland mantle plume. The Austurhorn central volcano likely formed in an off-rift flank zone proximal to the Iceland mantle plume during a major rift relocation. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Geochemistry and Petrology of Emeishan Basalts and Subcontinental Mantle Evolution in Southwestern China

Three major volcanic rock sequences in the P2β formation(Emeishan basalts)were sampled dur-ing a comprehensive study of the Late Permian volcanics associated with the Panxi paleorift in southwestern China .Two of the three sections-Emei and Tangfang are composed of continental flood basalts(CFB) while the third-Ertan is an alkalic center.Multi-element chemical analyses indi-cate a predominance of low MgO transitional quartz tholeiites at Emei and Tangfang,whereas the Ertan suite ranges from high-MgO alkaline olivine basalts to rhombic porphyry trachytes and quartz-bearing aegerine-augite syenites.Consanguineity of the rocks from the three sections is sug-gested by consistently high TiO2 ,K2O,incompatible trace elements and uniformly fractionated REE patterns typical of alkalic compositions,but antypical of CFB.Sr isotope data for ten Emei basalt samples(^87Sr/^86Sr=0.7066-0.7082)which show no correla-tion with Rb/Sr ratios (0.02-0.12) and Nd isotopes for two of the samples(^143Nd/^144Nd=0.51171-0.51174)are interpreted as being related to the mantle evolution.The primary magmas re-sponsible for all the three sequences have been modeled in terms of a uniformly metasomatized man-tle source.Trace element models support the derivation of the Emei and Tangfang primary magmas from 10-15 percent partial melting of spinel lherzolite,followed by fractional crystallization of olivive and clinopyroxene.The primary alkaline olivine basalts at Ertan are generated by 7-10 percent par-tial melting of a chemically equivalent source in the garnet-peridodite stability region.The assumed mantle composition is characterixzed by Rb=3.8-5.5 ppm,Sr=62-83ppm,Ba=45-64 ppm,La=3.8-5.6ppm,and Yb=0.46-0.57ppm.The proposed mechanism of regional mantle enrichment requires metasomatic stabilization of phlogopite which becomes depleted later during par-tial melting.Such enrichment is consistent with the models proposed for alkalic systems in which a large mantle diaper acts as the agent for upward enrichment as well as uplift and extension of the crust.     

Generation of Deccan Trap magmas

Deccan Trap magmas may have erupted through multiple centers, the most prominent of which may have been a shield volcano-like structure in the Western Ghats area. The lavas are predominantly tholeiitic; alkalic mafic lavas and carbonatites are rare. Radioisotope dating, magnetic chronology, and age constraints from paleontology indicate that although the eruption started some 68 Ma, the bulk of lavas erupted at around 65–66 Ma. Paleomagnetic constraints indicate an uncertainty of ± 500,000 years for peak volcanic activity at 65 m.y. in the type section of the Western Ghats. Maximum magma residence times were calculated in this study based on growth rates of “giant plagioclase” crystals in lavas that marked the end phase of volcanic activity of different magma chambers. These calculations suggest that the > 1.7 km thick Western Ghats section might have erupted within a much shorter time interval of ∼ 55,000 years, implying phenomenal eruption rates that are orders of magnitude larger than any present-day eruption rate from any tectonic environment. Other significant observations/conclusions are as follows: (1) Deccan lavas can be grouped into stratigraphic subdivisions based on their geochemistry; (2) While some formations are relatively uncontaminated others are strongly contaminated by the continental crust; (3) Deccan magmas were produced by 15–30% melting of a Fe-rich lherzolitic source at ∼ 3–2 GPa; (4) Parent magmas of the relatively uncontaminated Ambenali formation had a primitive composition with 16%MgO, 47%SiO₂; (5) Deccan magmas were generated much deeper and by significantly more melting than other continental flood basalt provinces; (6) The erupted Deccan tholeiitic lavas underwent fractionation and magma mixing at ∼ 0.2 GPa. The composition and origin of the crust and crust/mantle boundary beneath the Deccan are discussed with respect to the influence of Deccan magmatic episode.     

Chemical evolution, petrogenesis, and regional chemical correlations of the flood basalt sequence in the central Deccan Traps, India

The lava sequence of the central-western Deccan Traps (from Jalgaon towards Mumbai) is formed by basalts and basaltic andesites having a significant variation in TiO₂ (from 1.2 to 3.3 wt%), Zr (from 84 to 253 ppm), Nb (from 5 to 16ppm) and Ba (from 63 to 407 ppm), at MgO ranging from 10 to 4.2 wt%. Most of these basalts follow a liquid line of descent dominated by low pressure fractionation of clinopyroxene, plagioclase and olivine, starting from the most mafic compositions, in a temperature range from 1220° to 1125°C. These rocks resemble those belonging to the lower-most formations of the Deccan Traps in the Western Ghats (Jawhar, Igatpuri and Thakurvadi) as well as those of the Poladpur formation. Samples analyzed for⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr give a range of initial ratios from 0.70558 to 0.70621. A group of flows of the Dhule area has low TiO₂ (1.2–1.5 wt%) and Zr (84–105 ppm) at moderate MgO (5.2–6.2 wt%), matching the composition of low-Ti basalts of Gujarat, low-Ti dykes of the Tapti swarm and Toranmal basalts, just north of the study area. This allows chemical correlations between the lavas of central Deccan, the Tapti dykes and the north-western outcrops. The mildly enriched high field strength element contents of the samples with TiO₂ > 1.5 wt% make them products of mantle sources broadly similar to those which generated the Ambenali basalts, but their high La/Nb and Ba/Nb, negative Nb anomalies in the mantle normalized diagrams, and relatively high⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, make evident a crustal input with crustally derived materials at less differentiated stages than those represented in this sample set, or even within the sub-Indian lithospheric mantle.     

Crustal sulfur is required to form magmatic Ni–Cu sulfide deposits: evidence from chalcophile element signatures of Siberian and Deccan Trap basalts

Process models for ore formation in magmatic Ni–Cu–platinum group element (PGE) sulfide systems require that S saturation is achieved in a mafic–ultramafic magma. Traditional models explain the achievement of S saturation or sulfide saturation either by the addition of crustal S, by the felsification of the magma by crustal contamination, or by mixing between primitive and evolved magmas. Which process matters most is important to industry-oriented exploration models where crustal S sources are believed to be encouraging features of a metallotect. Studies of the Siberian Trap flood basalts at Noril’sk have demonstrated that chalcophile element depletion is linked to assimilation of silica-rich crust, but it is less clear whether this contaminant contained an appreciable amount of S. At Noril’sk, the Ni–Cu–PGE sulfide deposits are associated with subvolcanic intrusions that were emplaced into Permian and Carboniferous sedimentary sequences rich in shales, marlstones, and evaporites. Similar to the Siberian Trap basalts, the Deccan Trap contains a volumetrically important suite of crustally contaminated tholeiitic basalts. We present new PGE data for samples from a stratigraphic sequence of basalts from the southern Deccan province. Two of the formations in this sequence (the Bushe and Poladpur Formations) have geochemical signatures indicative of a wide degree of crustal contamination of a magma type that gave rise to the stratigraphically higher Ambenali Formation (a product of transitional midocean ridge basalt magmatism). There are no known deposits or occurrences of Ni–Cu–PGE sulfides associated with subvolcanic intrusions in the Deccan province. Despite the fact that the Bushe Formation exhibits a stronger crustal contamination signature than the most contaminated Siberian Trap basalt formations, and the Poladpur lavas are also strongly crustally contaminated, the Bushe and Poladpur basalts are undepleted in Ni, Cu, or PGE. This indicates that the contaminated Deccan Trap lavas did not achieve S saturation. This, in turn, places constraints on the potential of the Deccan Trap in southern India to host significant magmatic sulfide deposits. Conversely, this observation also indicates that an S-rich crustal contaminant is required for the genesis of magmatic Ni–Cu–PGE sulfide deposits.     

High pressure phase relations of primitive high-alumina basalts from Medicine Lake volcano,northern California

Anhydrous phase relations were determined at 1 atm and 10 to 15 kbar for primitive high-alumina basalts (79–35g and 82–72f) from Giant Crater at Medicine Lake volcano. These compositions are multiply saturated with olivine+augite+plagioclase+spinel+/-orthopyroxene near the liquidus at about 11 kbar. Experiments on mixtures of sample 79–35g with orthopyroxene and olivine determined the location of the multiple saturation boundaries where liquid coexists with the assemblage olivine+augite+orthopyroxene+plagioclase at 10 kbar and olivine+augite+orthopyroxene+spinel at 15 kbar. The mix experiments showed that primitive Medicine Lake high alumina basalts (HABs) are close in composition to liquids in equilibrium with a mantle lherzolite source containing olivine+augite+ orthopyroxene+spinel+plagioclase at 11 kbar. Orthopyroxene observed as a near liquidus phase in an 11 kbar experiment on sample 82–72f supports this conclusion. The most primitive HABs from Medicine Lake are low in K₂O (0.07 wt.%), high in MgO (>10 wt.%) and Ni (231 ppm), and have light-rare earth element depletions and large ion lithophile element enrichments. A model for the origin of these near-primary high-alumina basalts is that they are partial melts of a MORB-like mantle lherzolite source that has been enriched by a fluid component derived from the subducted slab. The HAB magma segregated from its mantle residue just below the base of the crust near the crust-mantle boundary.     

Alkaline basalt from the Central Iran, a mark of previously subducted Paleo-Tethys oceanic crust

In western part of the CEIM (Central-East Iranian Microcontinent) (Bayazeh area, Isfahan province, Iran), a series of Paleozoic basaltic rocks, occur. Major minerals of these basalts are olivine, clinopyroxene (diopside, augite), plagioclase (albite), sanidine, amphibole (kaersutite), phlogopite, ilmenite and magnetite. Secondary minerals include epidote, pumpellyite, albite, calcite and chlorite. Olivine and clinopyroxene are as phenocryst, while feldspars are restricted to groundmass. Chemical composition of clinopyroxenes indicates crystallization during ascending of magma. Geochemical analysis of whole rock samples shows that these rocks are characterized by low SiO₂ (43.21–48.45 wt %), high TiO₂ (1.81–3.00 wt %) and P₂O₅ (0.18–0.34 wt %). Petrography, chemistry of clinopyroxenes and whole rock analyses reveal an alkaline nature of these basalts. They are enriched in alkalis (Na₂O + K₂O = 4.1–7.7 wt %), LILE, HFSE and LREE. The Bayazeh alkali-basalts present strong enrichment in LREE relative to HREE (La/Lu ratio = 77.6–119.6) and were dominantly derived from partial melting of a metasomatized asthenospheric garnet-amphibole lherzolite. Field relationships reveal that junction of faults in west of the Bayazeh prepared a suitable path for ascending of magma from deep regions to surface and intra-plate continental magmatism. The Paleo-Tethys subduction from lower to upper Paleozoic is too enough for mantle enrichment in volatiles and basaltic alkaline magmatisrn in upper Paleozoic of Bayazeh area.     

Geochemical and mineralogical evidence for the occurrence of at least three distinct magma types in the ‘famous’ region

Bulk rock major and trace element variations in selected basalts from the Famous area, in conjunction with a detailed study of the chemical compositions of phenocryst minerals and associated melt inclusions are used to place constraints on the genetic relationship among the various lava types. The distribution of NiO in olivine and Cr-spinel phenocrysts distinguishes the picritic basalts, plagioclase phyric basalts and plagioclase-pyroxene basalts from the olivine basalts. For a given Mg/Mg+Fe²⁺ atomic ratio of the mineral, the NiO content of these phenocrysts in the former three basalt types is low relative to that in the phenocrysts in the olivine basalts. The Zr/Nb ratio of the lavas similarly distinguishes the olivine basalts from the plagioclase phyric and plagioclase pyroxene basalts and, in addition, distinguishes the picritic basalts from the other basalt types. These differences indicate that the different magma groups could not have been processed through the same magma chamber, and preclude any direct inter-relationship via open or closed system fractional crystallization.The Fe-Mg partitioning between olivine and host rock suggests that the picritic basalts represent olivine (±Cr-spinel) enriched magmas, derived from a less MgO rich parental magma. The partitioning of Fe and Mg between olivine, Cr-spinel and coexisting liquid is used to predict a primary magma composition parental to the picritic basalts. This magma is characterized by relatively high MgO (12.3%) and CaO (12.6%) and low FeO^* (7.96%) and TiO₂ (0.63%).Least squares calculations indicate that the plagioclase phyric basalts are related to the plagioclase-pyroxene basalts by plagioclase and minor clinopyroxene and olivine accumulation. The compositional variations within the olivine basalts can be accounted for by fractionation of plagioclase, clinopyroxene and olivine in an open system, steady state, magma chamber in the average proportions 453223. It is suggested that the most primitive olivine basalts can be derived from a pristine mantle composition by approximately 17% equilibrium partial melting. Although distinguished by its higher Zr/Nb ratio and lower NiO content of phenocryst phases, the magma parental to the picritic basalts can be derived from a similar source composition by approximately 27% equilibrium partial melting. It is suggested that the parental magma to the plagioclase-pyroxene and plagioclase phyric basalts might have been derived from greater depth resulting in the fractionation of the Zr/Nb ratio by equilibration with residual garnet.C.O.B. Contribution No. 722     

The Kalatongke magmatic Ni–Cu deposits in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, NW China: product of slab window magmatism?

The Permian Kalatongke Ni–Cu deposits in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt are among the most important Ni–Cu deposits in northern Xinjiang, western China. The deposits are hosted by three small mafic intrusions comprising mainly norite and diorite. Its tectonic context, petrogenesis, and ore genesis have been highly contested. In this paper, we present a new model involving slab window magmatism for the Kalatongke intrusions. The origin of the associated sulfide ores is explained in the context of this new model. Minor amounts of olivine in the intrusions have Fo contents varying between 71 and 81.5?mol%, which are similar to the predicted values for olivine crystallizing from coeval basalts in the region. Analytic modeling based on major element concentrations suggests that the parental magma of the Kalatongke intrusions and the coeval basalts represent fractionated liquids produced by ～15% of olivine crystallization from a primary magma, itself produced by 7–8% partial melting of depleted mantle peridotite. Positive ε _Nd values (+4 to +10) and significant negative Nb anomalies for both intrusive and extrusive rocks can be explained by the mixing of magma derived from depleted mantle with 6–18% of a partial melt derived from the lower part of a juvenile arc crust with a composition similar to coeval A-type granites in the region, plus up to 10% contamination with the upper continental crust. Our model suggests that a slab window was created due to slab break-off during a transition from oceanic subduction to arc–arc or arc–continent collision in the region in the Early Permian. Decompression melting in the upwelling oceanic asthenosphere produced the primary magma. When this magma ascended to pond in the lower parts of a juvenile arc crust, it underwent olivine crystallization and at the same time triggered partial melting of the arc crust. Mixing between these two magmas followed by contamination with the upper crust after the magma ascended to higher crustal levels formed the parental magma of the Kalatongke intrusions. The parental magma of the Kalatongke intrusions was saturated with sulfide upon arrival primarily due to olivine fractional crystallization and selective assimilation of crustal sulfur. Sulfide mineralization in the Kalatongke intrusions can be explained by accumulation of immiscible sulfide droplets by flow differentiation, gravitational settling, and downward percolation which operated in different parts of the intrusions. Platinum-group element (PGE) depletion in the bulk sulfide ores of the Kalatongke deposits was due to depletion in the parental magma which in turn was likely due to depletion in the primary magma. PGE depletion in the primary magma can be explained by a relatively low degree of partial melting of the mantle and retention of coexisting sulfide liquid in the mantle.     

Essexite occurrence in the Deccan volcanic province of Saurashtra,western India

The occurrence of essexite in the Deccan volcanic province of Saurashtra, India, is reported here for the first time. The essexite body occurs as a large stock-like intrusion in horizontal flow basalts. Petrographically it is characterized by the presence of titanaugite, labradorite, olivine, iron oxides and accessory amounts of alkali feldspar, analcite, biotite and apatite. Chemically it is characterized by enrichment in LILE, HFSE and REE as compared to the other tholeiitic and alkaline basalts of the area. It is therefore concluded that the essexite magma has not formed by differentiation out of the tholeiitic magma predominantly encountered in the Deccan volcanic province, but possibly represents a separate melt derived as a 5 to 10% partial melt at shallower depth (15 kb pressure) within the upper mantle.     

Compositional variations of chromiferous spinel in Mg-rich rocks of the Deccan Traps,India

Composition of chromiferous spinel included in olivines of Mg-rich basalts and gabbros of the Deccan Traps (Gujarat and Western Ghats) are reported here. They vary from Al-rich compositions [Al₂O₃ = 53wt.%; Cr#, 100Cr/(Cr + Al) = 12] to Cr-rich compositions [Cr₂O₃ = 51wt.%; Cr# = 84], and from Cr-Al rich compositions towards Cr-rich Ti-magnetite (TiO₂ up to 23 wt.%, ulvöspinel up to 67mol.%). The Mg# [100Mg/(Mg + Fe²⁺)] of spinel decreases from 81 to nearly zero. The highest Cr# has been found in the Bushe Fm., Thakurvadi Fm., and some high-Ti basalts of the Pavagadh section, whereas some of the low-Ti basalts of Saurashtra have Al-rich compositions typical of spinels found in mid-ocean ridge basalts. The chemical composition of the Deccan Trap spinels is completely different compared to that observed in mantle spinel suites, with very few exceptions. The decreasing Al and increasing Fe and Ti of spinel seems to be mainly the result of decrease of Mg in the locally coexisting melts and favourable cationic substitutions in the lattice. There is barely any evidence of general relationships between the composition of the Deccan spinels and inferred mantle sources of the host magmas. Pyroxene inclusions in spinels may witness a high-pressure stage of crystallization, but the possibility of non-equilibrium crystallization, or even magma mixing, cannot be ruled out. Overall, the compositional ranges of chromiferous spinel in the Deccan Traps closely match those observed in the other Large Igneous Provinces having mafic/ultramafic intrusions and mafic magma compositions (e.g., Siberian Traps, Karoo, Emeishan).     

东天山自然铜矿化带玄武岩的起源、演化及成岩构造背景

新疆东天山地区与玄武岩有关的自然铜矿化带位于东天山觉罗塔格构造带内,自西向东有十里坡、黑龙峰、长城山、东尖峰等主要矿(化)点,自然铜矿化主要发育在玄武岩、杏仁状玄武岩及凝灰岩夹层中。本文基于玄武岩的地球化学特征,研究东天山自然铜矿化带玄武岩是否与地幔柱有关、岩浆源区性质、岩浆演化、成岩构造背景等问题。研究显示,东天山自然铜矿化带玄武岩与地幔柱岩浆活动无直接关系,整个天山地区是否存在石炭-二叠纪地幔柱岩浆活动也需要进一步的研究; 玄武岩起源于亏损岩石圈地幔,是演化岩浆的产物; 演化的玄武质岩浆形成后,在岩浆房中或上升至地表的过程中没有发生明显的分离结晶作用,也没有受到明显的地壳物质混染; 与玄武岩对应的地幔橄榄岩平衡原生岩浆演化的高镁岩浆的产物,可能为东天山地区与铜镍硫化物成矿有关的基性-超基性岩,指示这些铜镍硫化物矿床可能与地幔柱岩浆活动也没有关系; 玄武岩形成于新疆北部后碰撞构造阶段的伸展期,是在拉张应力体制下,由于软流圈上涌导致岩石圈地幔部分熔融而形成。     

Melt and fluid inclusion evidence for a genetic relationship between magmatism in the Shuangliao volcanic field and inorganic CO2 gas reservoirs in the southern Songliao Basin,China

We have studied melt and fluid inclusions in minerals from alkali basalts, mantle xenoliths, and dawsonite-bearing sandstones from the Shuangliao volcanic field in southern Songliao Basin, Northeast China. The inclusions have been investigated using petrographic, geochemical, and laser Raman spectroscopic techniques. Volcanic rocks of the Shuangliao field are predominantly alkali olivine basalts that contain rare mantle xenoliths. Silicate melt and fluid inclusions are common in both olivine phenocrysts and the mantle xenoliths. The fluid inclusions are mainly composed of CO₂ with small amounts of CO, CH₄, N₂, and H₂O, which is consistent with an upper mantle origin. CO₂ gas reservoirs in the southern Songliao Basin are mostly derived from a mantle–magmatic source. Coeval fluid-inclusion homogenization temperatures, coupled with the thermal burial history, show that the CO₂ gas reservoirs in the southern Songliao Basin are Cenozoic (40–63 Ma) and coeval with the magmatism in the Shuangliao volcanic field. Despite the relatively small scale of this volcanic activity, it released large amounts of CO₂. Much of the magma was not erupted, and CO₂- and H₂O-rich magma was probably intruded into the basin along deep faults, acting as a major source of inorganic CO₂ gas in the southern Songliao Basin.     

A common parentage for Deccan Continental Flood Basalt and Central Indian Ocean Ridge Basalt? A geochemical and isotopic approach

A comparison of geochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic compositions for Deccan Continental Flood Basalts (CFBs) and Central Indian Ridge (CIR) Basalts is presented: these data permit assessment of possible parental linkages between the two regions, and comparison of their respective magmatic evolutionary trends in relation to rift-related tectonic events during Gondwana break-up. The present study reveals that Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt (MORB) from the northern CIR and basalts of Deccan CFB are geochemically dissimilar because of: (1) the Deccan CFB basalts typically show a greater iron-enrichment as compared to the northern CIR MORB, (2) a multi-element spiderdiagram reveals that the Deccan CFBs reveal a more fractionated slope (Ba/Yb_N > 1), as compared to relatively flat northern CIR MORB (Ba/Yb_N < 1), (3) there is greater REE fractionation for Deccan CFB than for the northern CIR MORB (i.e., La/Yb_N ∼ 2.3 and 1 respectively) and (4) substantial variation of compatible–incompatible trace elements and their ratios among the two basalt groups suggests that partial melting is a dominant process for northern CIR MORB, while fractional crystallization was a more important control to the geochemical variation for Deccan CFB. Further, incompatible trace element ratios (Nb/U and Nb/Pb) and radiogenic isotopic data (Sr–Pb–Nd) indicate that the northern CIR MORBs are similar to depleted mantle [and/or normal (N)-MORB], and often lie on a mixing line between depleted mantle and upper continental crust. By contrast, Deccan CFB compositions lie between the lower continental crust and Ocean island basalt. Accordingly, we conclude that the basaltic suites of the northern CIR MORB and Deccan CFB do not share common parentage, and are therefore genetically unrelated to each other. Instead, we infer that the northern CIR MORB were derived from a depleted mantle source contaminated by upper continental crust, probably during the break up of Gondwanaland; the Deccan CFB are more similar to Ocean island basalt (Reunion-like) composition, and perhaps contaminated by lower continental crust during their evolution.     

Geochemistry of Late Cretaceous （ 60 - 67 Ma） igneous activities in the Hebrides Terrace seamount （guyot） area, Scotland

Tholeiitic basalts in various stages of alteration were dredged from Late Cretaceous volcanic rocks (60 -67 Ma) in the Hebrides Terrace seamount area in the Atlantic Ocean. These rocks are extrusive olivine basalts, including high- and low-Al basalts. High-Al basalts are depleted in MgO, CaO, Cr,Sc, V, St, Zr and enriched in TiO2, Na2O, Nb, Rb as compared with low-A1 basalts. Petrography and bulk-rock composition (major, trace and rare-earth elements) data defined clear tholeiitic suites displaying possible liquid lines of descent related to different degrees of crystal fractionation and partial melting.Isotopic dating of dredged samples gave the guyot an age of 60 - 67 Ma, in support of the assumption that it was formed during the Late Cretaceous.     

High velocity anomaly beneath the Deccan volcanic province: Evidence from seismic tomography

Analysis of teleseismicP-wave residuals observed at 15 seismograph stations operated in the Deccan volcanic province (DVP) in west central India points to the existence of a large, deep anomalous region in the upper mantle where the velocity is a few per cent higher than in the surrounding region. The seismic stations were operated in three deployments together with a reference station on precambrian granite at Hyderabad and another common station at Poona. The first group of stations lay along a west-northwesterly profile from Hyderabad through Poona to Bhatsa. The second group roughly formed an L-shaped profile from Poona to Hyderabad through Dharwar and Hospet. The third group of stations lay along a northwesterly profile from Hyderabad to Dhule through Aurangabad and Latur. Relative residuals computed with respect to Hyderabad at all the stations showed two basic features: a large almost linear variation from approximately +1s for teleseisms from the north to—1s for those from the southeast at the western stations, and persistance of the pattern with diminishing magnitudes towards the east. Preliminary ray-plotting and three-dimensional inversion of theP-wave residual data delineate the presence of a 600 km long approximately N−S trending anomalous region of high velocity (1–4% contrast) from a depth of about 100 km in the upper mantle encompassing almost the whole width of the DVP. Inversion ofP-wave relative residuals reveal the existence of two prominent features beneath the DVP. The first is a thick high velocity zone (1–4% faster) extending from a depth of about 100 km directly beneath most of the DVP. The second feature is a prominent low velocity region which coincides with the westernmost part of the DVP. A possible explanation for the observed coherent high velocity anomaly is that it forms the root of the lithosphere which coherently translates with the continents during plate motions, an architecture characteristic of precambrian shields. The low velocity zone appears to be related to the rift systems (anomaly 28, 65 Ma) which provided the channel for the outpouring of Deccan basalts at the close of the Cretaceous period.     

Mineralogical,petrological, and geochemical studies of the Limahe mafic–ultramatic intrusion and associated Ni–Cu sulfide ores,SW China

The Limahe Ni–Cu sulfide deposit is hosted by a small mafic–ultramafic intrusion (800 × 200 × 300 m) that is temporally associated with the voluminous Permian flood basalts in SW China. The objective of this study is to better understand the origin of the deposit in the context of regional magmatism which is important for the ongoing mineral exploration in the region. The Limahe intrusion is a multiphase intrusion with an ultramafic unit at the base and a mafic unit at the top. The two rock units have intrusive contacts and exhibit similar mantle-normalized trace element patterns and Sr–Nd isotopic compositions but significantly different cumulus mineralogy and major element compositions. The similarities suggest that they are related to a common parental liquid, whereas the differences point to magma differentiation by olivine crystallization at depth. Sulfide mineralization is restricted to the ultramafic unit. The abundances of sulfides in the ultramafic unit generally increase towards the basal contacts with sedimentary footwall. The δ ³⁴S values of sulfide minerals from the Limahe deposit are elevated, ranging from +2.4 to +5.4‰. These values suggest the involvement of external S with elevated δ ³⁴S values. The mantle-normalized platinum-group element (PGE) patterns of bulk sulfide ores are similar to those of picrites associated with flood basalts in the region. The abundances of PGE in the sulfide ores, however, are significantly lower than that of sulfide liquid expected to segregate from undepleted picrite magma. Cr-spinel and olivine are present in the Limahe ultramafic rocks as well as in the picrites. Mantle-normalized trace element patterns of the Limahe intrusion generally resemble those of the picrites. However, negative Nb–Ta anomalies, common features of contamination with the lower or middle crust, are present in the intrusion but absent in the picrites. Sr–Nd isotopes suggest that the Limahe intrusion experienced higher degrees of contamination with the upper crust than did the picrites. The results of this study permit us to suggest that the parental magma of the Limahe intrusion was derived from picritic magma by olivine fractionation and contamination in a staging chamber at mid-crustal levels. Depletion of PGE in the sulfide ores in the Limahe intrusion is likely due to previous sulfide segregation of the parental magmas in the staging chamber. Sulfide mineralization in the Limahe intrusion is related to second-stage sulfide segregation after the fractionated magmas acquired external S from pyrite-bearing country rocks during magma ascent to the Limahe chamber. The abrupt change in mineralogical and chemical compositions between the ultramafic unit and the overlying unit suggests that at least two separate pulses of magma were involved in the development of the Limahe intrusion. We propose that the Limahe intrusion was once a wider part of a dynamic conduit that fed magma to the overlying subvolcanic dykes/sills or lavas. The ultramafic unit formed by the first, relatively more primitive magma, and the mafic unit formed by the second, relatively more fractionated magma. Immiscible sulfide droplets that segregated from the first magma settled down with olivine crystals to form the sulfide-bearing, olivine-rich rocks in the base of the intrusion. The overlying residual liquids were then pushed out of the chamber by the second magma. Critical factors for the formation of an economic Ni–Cu sulfide deposit in such a small intrusion include the dynamic petrologic processes involved and the availability of external sulfur. The Limahe deposit reminds us that small, multiphase, mafic–ultramafic intrusions in the region should not be overlooked for the potential of economic Ni–Cu sulfide deposits.     

Basalts from Madeira: A petrochemical contribution to the genesis of oceanic alkali rock series

Petrological and geochemical investigations have been conducted on the little studied Neogene basaltic rocks of the Madeiran Islands. The Madeiran suite of minor intrusives and lavas consists of parental, unusually soda rich, alkali olivine basalts with hawaiite, mugearite and essexite derivatives. Olivine and clinopyroxene are dominant phenocryst and cumulus nodule phases. Low pressure fractionation of the parental magma by precipitation of these minerals gave rise to the hawaiitic trend. That olivine settling precedes clinopyroxene in the fractionation process can be deduced from Ca and Ni variations in the analysed rocks and phenocryst separates. Late stage feldspar flotation in a hawaiitic derivative liquid led to extrusive mugearites and an intrusive essexite.Low K/Rb ratios in the Madeiran basalts (ave. 325) point to the influence of phlogopite rather than hornblende in the mantle melting zone. The primitive alkali olivine basalt magma is thought to have arisen by partial melting following water release from small amounts of phlogopite (no more than 1%) at mantle depths around 100 km. A deep level of magma generation is consistent with the low values of heat flow recorded in ocean basins. Many other oceanic alkali basalt provinces remote from ridge systems may have arisen in a similar way.     

Geochemical Study of Ultramafic Volcanic and Plutonic Rocks from Gorgona Island, Colombia: the Plumbing System of an Oceanic Plateau

The only known post-Archaean komatiites are found on Gorgona,a small island off the Colombian coast that forms part of theCaribbean oceanic plateau. Mafic and ultramafic intrusions arelocated in the interior of the island. To establish the relationshipbetween intrusive and extrusive phases of ultramafic magmatism,and to help understand how an oceanic plateau is constructed,we undertook the first petrological and geochemical study ofthe intrusive rocks. Rare earth element patterns in gabbrosrange from almost flat to moderately depleted; in dunites andwehrlites, the depletion is more pronounced. These patternsfall midway in the range measured in Gorgona volcanics, whosecompositions vary from slightly enriched to extremely depleted.Nd isotope compositions indicate two distinct mantle sources,one highly depleted, the other less depleted. MgO contents ofparental liquids are estimated from olivine compositions at20–25 % in ultramafic lavas, and 12–13% in the intrusives.Petrographic observations and similarities in trace-elementcontents indicate that the two magma types are comagmatic, relatedthrough olivine fractionation. Modelling of major and traceelements indicates that the primary ultramafic magmas formedby advanced critical melting at high pressure in a rising mantleplume. The plumbing system that fed the Gorgona plateau wascomplex, being characterized by a series of magma chambers atdifferent crustal levels. Mantle-derived ultramafic liquidseither travelled directly to the surface to erupt as komatiiteflows, or were trapped in magma chambers where they differentiatedinto basaltic liquid and mafic to ultramafic cumulates. Gorgonagabbros and peridotites formed in shallow-level examples ofthese intrusions. KEY WORDS: Gorgona Island, Colombia; komatiite; mantle melting; oceanic plateau; melt transport