Measurement of the vertical flux of turbulent kinetic energy with a single Doppler radar

The Doppler radar velocity azimuth display (VAD) technique for obtaining first and second moments of radial wind velocities is expanded to third-moment calculations. By scanning at an elevation angle of 50.8°, terms of the third-moment equation can be reduced to yield the vertical flux of turbulent kinetic energy, % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafeart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x% fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaa0aaaeaace% WG3bGbauaaceWGXbGbauaaaaaaaa!3807!\[\overline {w'q'} \]. The technique has been applied to summertime radar measurements of the convective boundary layer in Illinois. Resulting vertical profiles of % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafeart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x% fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaa0aaaeaace% WG3bGbauaaceWGXbGbauaaaaaaaa!3807!\[\overline {w'q'} \] follow the expected shape, and the magnitudes compare well with those of aircraft measurements in previous studies.     

The dependence of the measured cool skin of the ocean on wind stress and total heat flux

The temperature drop T between the ocean surface and the 5-cm depth was recorded during GATE, Phase III. With measured values of the total heat flux Q and an assumption about the thickness of the viscous boundary layer of the ocean, the wind-speed dependence of the factor of proportionality between T and Q is determined. This factor depends on the deviations of the thickness of the conductive layer from the thickness of the viscous layer and possibly partially on the wind stress. A further assumption about the thickness of the conductive layer leads to a wind-speed dependence of the ratio between total wind stress and its wave supporting part of it. This ratio increases from a value 1.5 at 1 m s^–1 to 9 at 10 m s^–1, which is in agreement with existing estimates.     

A note on the role of meridional wind stress anomalies and heat flux in ENSO simulations

Four comparative experiments and some supplementary experiments were conducted to examine the role of meridional wind stress anomalies and heat flux variability in ENSO simulations by using a high-resolution Ocean General Circulation Model （OGCM）. The results indicate that changes in the direction and magnitude of meridional wind stress anomalies have little influence on ENSO simulations until meridional wind stress anomalies are unrealistically enlarged by a factor of 5.0. However, evidence of an impact on ENSO simulations due to heat flux variability was found. The simulated Nino-3 index without the effect of heat flux anomalies tended to be around 1.0° lower than the observed, as well as the control run, during the peak months of ENSO events.     

Interdecadal variability of the Pacific Ocean: model response to observed heat flux and wind stress anomalies

Variability of the Pacific Ocean is examined in numerical simulations with an ocean general circulation model forced by observed anomalies of surface heat flux, wind stress and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) over the period 1970-88. The model captures the 1976-77 winter time climate shift in sea surface temperature, as well as its monthly, seasonal and longer term variability as evidenced in regional time series and empirical orthogonal function analyses. Examination of the surface mixed-layer heat budget reveals that the 1976-77 shift was caused by a unique concurrance of sustained heat flux input anomalies and very strong horizontal advection anomalies during a multi-month period preceding the shift in both the central Pacific region (where cooling occurred) and the California coastal region (where warming occurred). In the central Pacific, the warm conditions preceding and the cold conditions following the shift tend to be maintained by anomalous vertical mixing due to increases in the atmospheric momentum flux (TKE input) into the mixed layer (which deepens in the model after the shift) from the early 1970s to the late 1970s and 1980s. Since the ocean model does not contain feedback to the atmosphere and it succeeds in capturing the major features of the 1976-77 shift, it appears that the midlatitude part of the shift was driven by the atmosphere, although effects of midlatitude ocean-atmosphere feedback are still possible. The surface mixed-layer heat budget also reveals that, in the central Pacific, the effects of heat flux input and vertical mixing anomalies are comparable in amplitude while horizontal advection anomalies are roughly half that size. In the California coastal region, in contrast, where wind variability is much weaker than in the central Pacific, horizontal advection and vertical mixing effects on the mixed layer heat budget are only one-quarter the size of typical heat flux input anomalies.This paper was presented at the Second International Conference on Modelling of Global Climate Variability, held in Hamburg 7–11 September 1992 under the auspices of the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology. Guest Editor for these papers is L. Dümenil     

Sensible heat flux measurements with a yaw sphere and thermometer

A yaw sphere has been designed that measures a quantity that is proportional to the vertical heat flux. The method is described, and some comparisons are given with measurements made with a three-dimensional pressure-sphere anemometer, in combination with a fast-response thermometer.     

Radiative heat flux divergence and heat regime in the lowest layer of the atmosphere

Summary The problem of the influence of radiative flux divergence and turbulent heat exchange on temperature of the near-ground layer of the atmosphere is considered. Different methods of calculating long-wave radiative flux divergence are discussed. The importance of different factors for the thermal regime of the near-ground layer is established by means of the theory of non-stationary heat exchange. The primary conclusions are: 1) temperature changes influenced by radiation and turbulence are not additive; this means that, strictly speaking, separate calculations of either radiative or turbulent temperature changes have no meaning, 2) the theory developed in this paper is sufficiently exact to show that there is a great influence of radiative flux divergence on the thermal regime of the near-ground layer of the atmosphere.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird das Problem des Einflusses der Strahlungsstrom-Divergenz und des turbulenten W?rmeaustausches auf die Temperatur der bodennahen Luftschicht behandelt. Verschiedene Methoden zur Berechnung der Divergenz der langwelligen Strahlungsstr?me werden diskutiert. Die Bedeutung der verschiedenen Faktoren für das Temperaturregime der bodennahen Luftschicht wird auf Grund der Theorie des nichtstation?ren W?rmeaustausches festgestellt. Die wichtigsten Schlu?folgerungen sind: 1. Die Temperatur?nderungen, die durch Strahlung und Turbulenz hervorgerufen werden, k?nnen nicht addiert werden; dies bedeutet, da? eine gesonderte Berechnung der Temperatur?nderungen durch Strahlungsvorg?nge bzw. durch den Turbulenzw?rmestrom streng genommen nicht zul?ssig ist. 2. Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit entwickelte Theorie erfa?t die tats?chlichen Vorg?nge mit genügender Genauigkeit, um zu beweisen, da? die Divergenz des langwelligen Strahlungsstromes für das Temperaturregime der bodennahen Luftschicht von gro?er Bedeutung ist.

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Résumé Les auteurs traitent ici le problème de l'influence de la divergence du flux de rayonnement ainsi que des échanges turbulents de chaleur sur la température des couches d'air voisines du sol. Ils discutent diverses méthodes permettant de calculer la divergence des flux de rayonnement de grande longueur d'onde. Ils constatent l'importance des divers facteurs sur le régime de température de ces couches d'air voisines du sol et cela sur la base de la théorie des échanges de chaleur non stationnaires. Les conclusions principales sont: 1) les variations de température dues au rayonnement d'une part et à la turbulence d'autre part ne peuvent être additionnées; cela signifie que, si l'on veut être exact, il n'est pas possible de calculer séparément les variations de température dues aux phénomènes de rayonnement, respectivement aux courants thermiques turbulents, 2) la théorie développée dans ce travail embrasse avec suffisamment de précision les effets réels pour démontrer que la divergence du flux de rayonnement à grande longueur d'ondes est d'une importance capitale pour le régime des températures des couches d'air voisines du sol.

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With 1 Figure

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Dedicated to Dr.W. M?rikofer on the occasion of his 70 th birthday.     

On the definition of the flux of sensible heat

The definition of the sensible heat flux is examined in the light of a paper published by Brook (1978). We show that the convergence of the flux defined in this paper and that of the standard definition are related to different quantities and that care must be taken to ensure that compatible definitions are used.     

Diapycnal heat flux and mixed layer heat budget within the Atlantic Cold Tongue

Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the eastern tropical Atlantic are crucial for climate variability within the tropical belt. Despite this importance, state-of-the-art climate models show a large SST warm bias in this region. Knowledge about the seasonal mixed layer (ML) heat budget is a prerequisite for understanding SST mean state and its variability. Within this study all contributions to the seasonal ML heat budget are estimated at four locations within the Atlantic cold tongue (ACT) that are representative for the western (0°N, 23°W), central (0°N, 10°W) and eastern (0°N, 0°E) equatorial as well as the southern (10°S, 10°W) ACT. To estimate the contribution of the diapycnal heat flux due to turbulence an extensive data set of microstructure observations collected during ten research cruises between 2005 and 2012 is analyzed. The results for the equatorial ACT indicate that with the inclusion of the diapycnal heat flux the seasonal ML heat budget is balanced. Within the equatorial region, the diapycnal heat flux is essential for the development of the ACT. It dominates over all other cooling terms in the central and eastern equatorial ACT, while it is of similar size as the zonal advection in the western equatorial ACT. In contrast, the SST evolution in the southern ACT region can be explained entirely by air-sea heat fluxes.     

Calibration of soil heat flux transducers

Summary Soil heat flux transducer calibration, according to theory, is influenced by the thermal conductivity difference between the transducer and the calibration medium and the geometry of the transducer. This study was conducted to compare the influence of these parameters on the calibration factors of two types of commercial soil heat flux transducers with different material thermal conductivities and different geometries. A theoretical calibration equation was developed and evaluated. Calibrations of 14 transducers representing two commercial types were conducted in the laboratory using steady-state conductive methods over a range of heat fluxes from 40 W/m² to 200 W/m². The calibration medium was dry and saturated sand with a thermal conductivity varying from 0.3 to 3 W m^–1°C^–1. The mean calibration factor for one type of transducer was 12% lower than the mean manufacturer's calibration factor instead of the 26 to 36% lower value predicted by theory. The other type of transducer had a mean calibration factor 7% greater than the mean manufacturer's calibration factor in contrast to the 1 to 11% larger value predicted from theory. The computed geometric factors were 1.07 and 0.89 for the circular and square transducers, respectively. These factors were less than the theoretical value of 1.70 for each shape of transducer but similar to experimental values of 1.02 to 1.31 from previous studies reported in the literature. The thermal conductivity of the calibration medium and the geometry of the transducer affects the calibration factors of soil heat flux transducers, basically according to theory.Contribution from USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Area.With 4 Figures     

Measurements of the turbulent heat flux over the sea

The turbulent heat flux was measured with two instruments simultaneously over the Baltic Sea by means of the eddy-correlation method. In one observational period, a small but noticeable divergence in heat flux was found, which may be explained by the advection of colder air. The parameterization of heat flux by the bulk method leads to a value for C _Hof 1 × 10^–3.     

海表热通量反馈及海温变率

海气交界面的能量交换与海洋平流共同决定海表面温度(sea surface temperature,SST)异常的形成、维持与衰减。基于作者近期的研究,本文回顾了海表面热通量(surface heat flux,SHF)反馈以及SST方差与海表热通量及海洋热输送方差之间的关系。海表热通量异常可近似为一个与SST成正比的线性反馈项与一个大气强迫项之和。SHF的反馈参数取决于SST和SHF间的滞后交叉协方差以及SST自协方差。这种反馈总体上为负反馈,减弱SST异常,海表湍流部分起主导作用。最强的反馈可见于南北两半球的中纬度,最大值出现在大洋的西部和中部位置并延伸至高纬度地区。SHF反馈于北半球秋冬两季增强,春夏两季减弱。这些反馈特征在CMIP3耦合气候模式中得到合理的模拟。然而,多数模式中反馈的强度与再分析资料的估值相比略为偏弱。与再分析资料的估值相比,“平均模式”反馈参数比单一模式有更相似的空间形态以及较小的均方根差。基于海表面能量收支平衡,SST的方差可以表示为3个要素的积:1)海表面辐射和湍流通量以及海洋热输送的方差之和;2)一个衡量SST持续性的传输系数G;3)一个反映海表热通量以及海洋热输送之间协方差结构的有效因子e。SST方差的地理分布类似于海表热通量及海洋热输送的方差之和,但为G和e因子所修正。     

Inertial range behaviour of the longitudinal heat flux cospectrum

Hot and cold wire measurements in the atmospheric surface layer support a -5/3 intertial range behaviour for the longitudinal and heat flux cospectrum. A narrow -5/3 region, which precedes a -7/3 region, can be observed in existing atmospheric data for momentum and heat flux cospectra.     

Description and evaluation of a sensible heat flux detector

An eddy-correlation method is the basis of a newly-developed sensible heat-flux detector which collects air temperature information proportional to the vertical wind speed in two electronic counters, one for upflow and one for downflow. The current model uses fast-responding sensors for vertical velocity and air temperature, but the principle should be applicable to the measurement of other kinds of fluxes. Values of sensible heat transport above bare soil and above grass have been determined, from which a sampling duration of one hour has been found to be suitable. The system provides a relatively simple way to measure sensible heat fluxes and to determine the suitability of this flux technique for wider application.     

Streamwise heat flux budget in the atmospheric surface layer

Atmospheric surface-layer measurements of terms in the equation for the streamwise heat flux confirm previous results in both laboratory and atmosphere that the temperature-pressure gradient correlation acts as a sink, approximately equal in magnitude to the production term. The measured viscous dissipation term is independent of stability and represents less than 10% of the production term over the range of experimental stability conditions. Models for the temperature-pressure gradient correlation are compared with the measurements.     

坝陵河大桥桥区风参数初步分析与设计风速的确定

对坝陵河大桥桥区周边及相关8个气象台站的风资料进行统计和初步的分析，选取了对桥区风参数具有代表性的台站，并对桥区极值风速进行了计算，确定了大桥的设计风速为30m／s。     

云中风和湍流的多普勒雷达探测

一、发展概况 微波多普勒雷达可以用来测量各类降水云系中的风和湍流的场结构,这是其他一般探测方法难以做到的。 多普勒雷达接收的是回波的频移信息。频移的大小正比于降水粒子相对于雷达射束的径向速度。从分布杂乱和运动着的大气降水粒子反射回来的信息往往是展宽了的多普     

Deduction of the Sensible Heat Flux from SODAR Data

A new method for deduction of the sensible heat flux is validated with three sets of published SODAR （sound detection and ranging） data. Although the related expressions have previously been confirmed by the author with surface layer data, they have not yet been validated with observations from the boundary layer before this work. In the study, selected SODAR data are used to test the method for the convective boundary layer. The sensible heat flux （SHF） retrieved from SODAR data is found to decrease linearly with height in the mixed layer. The surface sensible heat fluxes derived from the deduced sensible heat flux profiles under convective conditions agree well with those measured by the eddy correlation method. The characteristics of SHF profiles deduced from SODAR data in different places reflect the background meteorology and terrain. The upper part of the SHF profile （SHFP） for a complicated terrain is found to have a different slope from the lower part. It is suggested that the former reflects the advective characteristic of turbulence in upwind topography. A similarity relationship for the estimation of SHFP in a well mixed layer with surface SHF and zero-heat-flux layer height is presented.     

Evaluation of six parameterization approaches for the ground heat flux

Summary There are numerous approaches to the parameterization of the ground heat flux that use different input data, are valid for different times of the day, and deliver results of different quality. Six of these approaches are tested in this study: three approaches calculating the ground heat flux from net radiation, one approach using the turbulent sensible heat flux, one simplified in situ measurement approach, and the force-restore method. On the basis of a data set recorded during the LITFASS-2003 experiment, the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches are assessed. The quality of the best approaches (simplified measurement and force-restore) approximates that of the measured data set. An approach calculating the ground heat flux from net radiation and the diurnal amplitude of the soil surface temperature also delivers satisfactory daytime results. The remaining approaches all have such serious drawbacks that they should only be applied with care. Altogether, this study demonstrates that ground heat flux parameterization has the potential to produce results matching measured ones very well, if all conditions and restrictions of the respective approaches are taken into account.     

Time and height variability of the sensible heat flux in the surface layer

The energy-budget concept is used together with a high resolution spectral radiation model to study the time and height variation of the sensible heat flux and of the eddy thermal diffusivity for an actual case up to 50 m above ground. A data set of 32 h is chosen for this study. Time-height cross-sections of the local enthalpy changes, and the radiative and the sensible heat flux divergences are presented, which show the interaction of the two energy fluxes. It can be seen, for example, that during the transient hours from night to day the sensible heat flux divergence plays an outstanding role in the warming of the atmosphere, while during the clear night radiative cooling exceeds the cooling caused by the sensible heat flux. For the layer under consideration (0-50 m) a constancy of the sensible heat flux within 10% is obtained for seven hours only, namely for the time around noon and in the early afternoon. Selected night-time profiles of the thermal diffusivity are shown, which have their maximum below 48.3 m.The accuracy of the energy-budget method is studied in detail. The tests show that a high accuracy, with errors even less than 10% for some hours, can be expected, if special micrometeorological studies are made during the field phase and a layer depth of 50 cm or less is used in the radiation model.     

广州人为热初步估算及敏感性分析

考虑了工业、交通和生活三种人为热排放源,利用广州市工业和生活能源消耗量、汽车保有量、主干道车流量等数据,估算出广州人为热日变化排放通量,全天平均排放通量411 W〖DK〗·m-2,最大排放通量出现在11时,为723 W ·m-2,其中工业排放占总排放量686%。利用耦合到WRF中的单层城市冠层模式(WRF/UCM),对人为热作用进行敏感性试验,包括无人为热、无日变化人为热、有日变化人为热、人为热排放通量翻倍四种方案。结果显示,方案之间冠层感热通量的差异与人为热设置的差异大致相等。试验方案之间冠层内气温差异较小,单倍人为热与双倍人为热的最大差值约只有02℃。另外,人为热使湍流得到发展,双倍人为热比单倍人为热湍流动能增加约01~04 m2 ·s-2。且人为热对白天城市边界层湍涡有增强作用,添加单倍人为热后使气流垂直速度最大增加可达01 m ·s-1,使垂直混合加强。有日变化的人为热对热岛强度的贡献在中午时最大,单倍人为热的平均贡献率159%,双倍人为热为228%;而无日变化的人为热在凌晨时贡献最大,平均贡献率149%。