内蒙古半农半牧区农户生计资产与生计方式研究——以科右中旗双榆树嘎查为例

基于可持续生计框架,采用统计分析和深度访谈法,将研究区293户农户按生计活动类型划为牧户（牛户、羊户、牛羊户和马户）、种植户和非农户,并按农户生计资产总值进一步划为高、中、低3个等级类型,进而分析了不同类型和不同等级农户的生计资产与生计活动及方式的依存关系。研究发现：各类农户的生计资产均值差距明显,牧户最高,为0.37,种植户为0.25,非农户为0.21;牧户的劳动力、草场、牲畜、现金、贷款等资产均值最高,种植户的农机和耕地资产均值最高,非农户的社会资产均值最高。目前,半农半牧区的农户仍然以旱作种植业和草地畜牧业为主要生计,但农牧业生产均面临较大的资源环境压力;非农户只占15.3%,且面临非农就业机会不足、个人技能缺失、语言障碍和务农时间与用工季节的冲突。最后,提出了提高农户收入和改善农户生计的对策建议。     

Biodiversity conservation and pastoralism—reducing herd size in a communal livestock production system in Richtersveld National Park

Biodiversity is a critical component of the natural environment and the protection of it often meant the displacement of local communities in developing countries. The Richtersveld National Park (South Africa) is unusual in that it forms part of the Richtersveld communal rangeland and is currently managed for goat and sheep farming as well as biodiversity conservation under a contractual agreement. These two objectives are not regarded as mutually compatible and have created tension between conservation management officials and pastoralists. We set out to examine the consequences of reducing herd size in a communal livestock production system in support of biodiversity conservation in a protected area. Kidding, animal offtake (sales and slaughter), mortality and herd persistence showed no clear incentives for an individual pastoralist to reduce herd size. Reducing herd size is not considered a recommended intervention for the conservation of biodiversity or livelihood improvement of pastoralists in the park. The future of the natural resources of the national park is dependent on a delicate balance between the needs of the pastoralists and the conservation of those very same resources that the pastoralists use.     

Understanding pastoral mobility: the case of Senegalese Fulani

Based on a case study from Sahelian Senegal, this paper analyses how various actors perceive the importance of pastoral mobility and presents issues of importance for understanding the use of mobility among Fulani of Ferlo. One knowledge system is a scientific one, the 'new rangeland paradigm'. According to this, pastoral mobility is a means to balance variability in dryland resources; hence, 'nature' is the point of departure. Another knowledge system is local pastoral knowledge. For the pastoralists, the well-being of their animals is the point of departure and mobility is used to ensure that the livestock are in good condition. The paper shows that it is important to distinguish between mobility of pastoralists and of their herd; even though the pastoralists of northern Senegal have become semi-sedentary, their herds are still quite mobile. The pastoralists are willing to move around within a small territory, which they consider their place, but are unwilling to employ large-scale mobility themselves. Mobility is not of importance for their ethnic identity and some use paid herders to care for their livestock. By looking at both knowledge systems, we achieve a better understanding of pastoral mobility and how this may change in the future.     

Pastoral nomadism in the forest-steppe of the Mongolian Altai under a changing economy and a warming climate

The population structure, educational level and the livelihoods of 82 households of pastoral nomads, the organization of livestock husbandry and its impact on the grassland and forest ecosystems of the Dayan high valley (>2000 m a.s.l.) in the Mongolian Altai, western Mongolia, were surveyed using interviews and secondary information from official sources. Changes following the transition from centrally planned (before 1990) to market economy were analyzed. Two thirds of the monthly mean income of ca. 310 USD per nomad household is cash (ca. 55 USD) or non-cash (ca. 165 USD) income from livestock husbandry. Cashmere sale accounts for 70% of the cash income from livestock husbandry, which has led to a strong increase of goat numbers after 1990. Forests are used for livestock grazing, fuel wood collection, logging, and fruit collection. Livestock breeding and the seasonal migration of the nomad households are no longer organized by the government. To avoid transportation costs, two thirds of the families have reduced their seasonal migrations. This trend was favored by rising temperatures and earlier snowmelt during the last few decades, but resulted in a shortage of fodder and intensified forest use. Therefore, the use of grasslands and forests in the Mongolian Altai is no longer considered to be sustainable.     

农村居民点功能演变的微尺度分析——山东省沂水县核桃园村的实证

从微尺度考察农村居民点演变为解决当前农村发展中出现的问题提供了重要视角。构建农村居民点功能演变的分析框架,采用参与式农村评估（PRA）、GIS与遥感影像相结合方法,以山东省沂水县核桃园村为例进行实证。结果表明,农业生产功能一直是农村居民点生产功能的主导,但不同阶段有不同的内容。农业生计主导阶段（1949~1977年）,农户以种植业为主要生计来源,利用庭院及房前屋后种植蔬菜;生计多样化阶段（1978~1999年）,农户生计策略演变为种植、养殖和外出务工相结合,农户在宅基地内修建猪圈养猪,在庭院内散养家禽;生计非农转化阶段（2000~2012年）,农户以种植和外出务工相结合为生计策略,将庭院硬化用来晾晒粮食、猪圈改造为储物间存放粮食和农机具。农村居民点用地一直以宅基地为主导,缺乏非农生产用地;随着生计成果的逐渐丰富,农户对农村居民点生活功能追求不断强化,表现在对住宅建筑材料的优化、居住空间的扩展及旧住宅的翻新。农村居民点内部土地利用结构及其功能承载状况是与农户生计需求相适应的,农村居民点整理应充分尊重这一客观事实。     

农牧交错区农村居民点土地利用形态演变——以内蒙古自治区阿鲁科尔沁旗为例

以农牧交错区的阿鲁科尔沁旗为例,选取7个典型村,运用参与式农村评估(PRA)、GIS与遥感技术相结合的方法,探讨农牧交错区农村居民点土地利用形态特征及其与农牧户生计的关系。结果表明：①半农半牧型农村居民点由纯牧型农村居民点演变而来。人口增加导致人地矛盾突出和草原开垦耕种,农牧户生计策略转为畜牧业和种植业结合,农村居民点向半农半牧型转变;②半农半牧型农村居民点内部用地类型逐渐多样化。从改革开放前居民点内部以农村宅基地占主导,到改革开放后居民点内部公共设施用地、商服用地、工矿仓储用地迅速扩大;③由于农牧户生计活动的多样化和非农化,农村宅基地内部不但包括居住用地(住房),还包括生产性用地和生产辅助性用地（如牲畜的棚圈、菜园和粮草仓库等）。研究认为,半农半牧型农村居民点人均居民点用地和户均宅基地都远大于国家规定的用地标准,是与半农半牧的生产方式和生计需求紧密相关的。     

贫困山区脱贫农户的生计可持续性及生计干预——以陇南山区为例

增强贫困山区脱贫农户的生计可持续性不仅是新时期农村扶贫的现实需求,更是推动乡村振兴的客观要求。论文从生计资本、生计策略及生计环境出发,建立了脱贫农户的生计可持续性评价指标体系,利用陇南山区脱贫农户的入户调查资料,评估贫困山区脱贫农户的生计可持续性、识别脱贫农户的生计障碍。研究发现:① 从川坝河谷区、半山区到高山区,从早期脱贫到后期脱贫,脱贫农户的生计可持续性依次降低,且务工型与农工互补型脱贫农户的生计可持续性强于其他生计方式农户;② 陇南山区生计不可持续脱贫农户比重达28.83%,高山区、传统务农型及后期脱贫户中生计不可持续农户比重较高,而川坝河谷区、农工互补型与务工型及早期脱贫户中该比重较低;③ 生计不可持续脱贫户均面临着多元生计障碍,其中近2/3的农户面临多维资本—环境阻滞型与多重要素阻滞型障碍;④ 针对生计不可持续脱贫农户面临的多元生计障碍,需分类实施多维生计干预。     

The household economy of pastoralists and wage-labourers in the Richtersveld, South Africa

The Richtersveld is situated in an arid environment and its inhabitants are confronted with various hazards. Based on data collected during 22 months of ethnographic fieldwork, the livelihood strategies of Richtersvelders are explored. Besides a thorough examination of the diversified economy, the internal institutional arrangements for pooling and redistributing resources within households are analysed in this paper. Encouraging household members to engage in different activities and to share their income—as well as skills to manage the household budget properly—are integral to diversification and reducing the vulnerability of households. This study has shown that even in a community marked by considerable dependence on wage labour, almost three-quarters of the households are directly involved in stock farming. Although pastoralism still plays an important role for households, it has shifted from being the core economic activity to being an insurance against unemployment and contributing to subsistence. Stock farming serves to build up resilience through the diversification of economic activities inside the household. In the South African context, the relevance of activities dependent on land has implications not only for rural development, but also for post-apartheid land and agrarian reform.     

甘南牧区劳动力转移背景下留守农户生计策略选择

劳动力转移的行为和经历对贫困农（牧）户的生计产生了并继续产生着复杂而深远的影响,并构成了留守家庭成员进行新的生计选择的背景和前提条件。在资本变动和要素约束下,西部民族地区农（牧）户进行着不同的生产决策,并形成不同类型的生计策略。以甘南牧区为例,通过解析劳动力转移的特征变量,总结典型的劳动力转移农（牧）户家庭主要的生计策略模式,揭示了甘南牧区劳动力转移对留守农（牧）户生计策略选择的作用关系,并得出相应的结论。结果表明：转移劳动力文化水平、劳动力转移的外出时间、务工去向与转移劳动力工种类型在一定程度上影响了留守农（牧）户生计策略的选择。这可为西部民族地区政府部门制定科学、合理、可持续的劳动力资源利用政策,促进当地农（牧）户生计的可持续发展提供参考依据。     

生态补偿对农户生计的影响——以甘南黄河水源补给区为例

生态补偿项目对农户生计的影响关系到项目可持续性及社会公平性,近年来已成为生态补偿领域的研究热点。本文通过调查退牧还草工程前后甘南黄河水源补给区农户生计资本及生计方式的变化,分析了生态补偿项目对农户生计的影响,提出应建立多样化、差别化的补偿方式,提高项目区农户的生计能力,确保生计安全。研究发现:①生态补偿后农户生计总资本显著增加,除自然资本下降外,其余各类生计资本均增加,但纯牧区、半农半牧区、农区农户的生计资本变幅不同;②生态补偿后农户生计方式发生显著变化,从事非农活动的农户比例增加,生计多样化指数增加,其中农区农户的非农化程度及生计多样化指数的增幅均高于纯牧区与半农半牧区。     

Participatory selection process for indicators of rangeland condition in the Kalahari

To develop indicator–based management tools that can facilitate sustainable natural resource management by non–specialists, meaningful participation of stakeholders is essential. A participatory framework is proposed for the identification, evaluation and selection of rangeland condition indicators. This framework is applied to the assessment of rangeland degradation processes and sustainable natural resource management with pastoralists in the southern Kalahari, Botswana. Farmer knowledge focused on vegetation and livestock, with soil, wild animal and socio–economic indicators playing a lesser role. Most were indicators of current rangeland condition; however 'early warning' indicators were also identified by some key informants. This demonstrates that some local knowledge is process–based. Such knowledge could be used to improve indicator–based management tools and extension advice on the livelihood adaptations necessary to prevent or reduce ecological change, capable of threatening livelihood sustainability. There is evidence that social background influences indicator use. Communal farmers rely most heavily on vegetation and livestock indicators, whilst syndicate and land–owning pastoralists cite wild animal and soil–based indicators most frequently. These factors must be considered if indicator–based management tools are to meet the requirements of a diverse community.     

“阿者科计划”对农户生计的影响分析——基于DFID可持续生计框架

农户生计状况是实现乡村振兴和乡村可持续发展过程中需要关注的重点。文章以阿者科村为案例地,通过笔者亲身驻村经历和入户调查获取数据,基于DFID可持续生计框架构建了农户生计资本评价指标体系,详细分析了“阿者科计划”这种结构与制度因素的转变对当地农户生计的影响,并探讨了其中的影响机制。研究发现：1）乡村旅游发展使农户参与其中,成为村集体公司员工或自主开展旅游经营,旅游与传统的生计方式共同构成了了农户多样化的生计组合;2）农户生计策略出现转型和分化,形成了旅游主导型、旅游务工型、参与旅游型、务工主导型和半工半农型5种类型农户;3）不同类型农户的生计水平和各生计资本组合形式存在差异,其中生计资本总量由高到低依次为旅游主导型、旅游务工型、参与旅游型、务工主导型、半工半农型;4）“阿者科计划”形成了在政府和高校支持下,农户内生动力充分发展的长效机制,旅游成为农户传统生计的重要补充,提升了其生计资本。     

Tibetan Lake Expansion from a Pastoral Perspective: Local Observations and Coping Strategies for a Changing Environment

Global climate change is causing the majority of large lakes on the Tibetan Plateau to expand. While these rising lake levels and their causes have been investigated by hydrologists and glaciologists, their impacts on local pastoral communities have mostly been ignored. Our interviews with pastoralists in central Tibet reveal their observations and beliefs about Lake Serling’s expansion, as well as how its effects are interacting with current rangeland management policies. Interviewees reported that the most negative effects on their livelihoods have been reduced livestock populations and productivity due to the inundation of high-quality pastures by saline lake water. However, pastoralists’ collective efforts based on traditional values and norms of sharing, assistance, and reciprocity have helped them cope with these climate change impacts. These local, traditional coping strategies are particularly worthy of attention now, given that the transformation of traditional pastoralism is a goal of current government development initiatives.     

Repercussions of institutional governance changes on communication practices in the Afar National Regional State,Ethiopia

Formal and informal institutions guide and shape communities and communication practices worldwide. Colonization, modernization and political transformation processes changed and questioned the role and relevance of informal institutions and strengthened the position of formal institutions. This paper looks at institutional governance transitions and the increasing presence of formal as opposed to informal clan based practices in the pastoralist lowlands of the Afar Region, Ethiopia, by analysing its impact on communication practices. Afar is governed by numerous multi‐scale institutions; a complex network of governmental and traditional, formal and informal bodies at different scales. The region witnessed the devaluation of indigenous and traditional customs, which altered how and with whom pastoralists and agro‐pastoralists communicate. The paper's case study shows that although residents now report their concerns to formal institutional representatives, traditional institutions are still functional. This change allows females to take a more active role in reporting concerns and communicating with authority figures. However, spatial disadvantages are present in this vast and sparsely populated region as those based further away from government representatives are disadvantaged. The relevance for a clear understanding of communication methods on the ground is stressed, in particular for implementing and disseminating programs and policies in this aid‐dependent area.     

Local Perceptions of the Livelihood and Conservation Benefits of Small-Scale Livelihood Projects in Rural Madagascar

Small-scale livelihood projects are widely used in forest conservation and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD)+ initiatives; however, there is limited information on how effective these projects are at delivering livelihood and conservation benefits. We explored local perceptions of the effectiveness of small-scale livelihood projects in delivering livelihood and conservation benefits in eastern Madagascar. Our results suggest that small-scale livelihood projects vary greatly in their ability to deliver livelihood benefits, and that the type of livelihood project (e.g., agriculture, beekeeping, fish farming, or livestock production) has a significant impact on which livelihood benefits are delivered. Many small-scale livelihood projects, regardless of project type, are perceived to contribute to forest conservation efforts. Our study highlights that small-scale livelihood projects have the potential to contribute to both improved livelihoods and enhanced forest conservation, but also illustrates the need for more information on the factors that lead to project success.     

Responses of rural households to the impacts of population and land-use changes along the Eastern Escarpment of Wello,Ethiopia

The article analyses the effects of changes in land cover and land use changes together with population changes on the livelihood of rural households, and also farming households' responses to these changes, in typical rural settings of north-eastern Ethiopia. The study shows that the immediate impact of shrubland and forest increase since the late 1970s, coupled with population increase, is an exponential fall of per capita cropland and grazing land, which are the principal physical assets of livelihoods of the rural farming community in the area. Furthermore, the study reveals that the scarcity of cultivated land in the area neither brings about agricultural intensification nor leads to diversification into non-farm activities, and farmers did not respond to the scarcity of cultivated land through large out-migration. In general, the Boserupian assumption of land-use intensification through improved labour and land productivity did not happen in the region. Rather, the Malthusian thesis seems appropriate. The majority of farming households are destitute, unable to satisfy their own food demands, and live in absolute poverty. This situation has been brought about not only due to population pressure but also as a result of the policies that have been applied in all systems since the 1950s.     

Characteristics of nonpoint source pollution load from crop farming in the context of livelihood diversification

Based on objective data collected from interviews in typical villages of the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, the present study devised three livelihood scenarios related to rural transformation development: agriculturally dominant livelihood, multiple-type livelihood and non-agriculturally dominant livelihood. Moreover, the present study reports the trend characteristics of nonpoint source pollution load of crop farming in relation to the transformation of dominant livelihood types, and discussed the primary factors which affect livelihood type transformations. Results indicated the following: (1) The current farmland pattern shows a trend of diversification as self-cultivation, cropland transfer and fallow in the sample region. Dynamic characteristics of cultivated land present a special feature that is more “transfer-into” than “transfer-out”. Various scales of planting are represented among the various households, according to the following decreasing order: half-labor household > non-labor household > adequate labor household. (2) The highest pollution loading produced by crop farming occurs in half-labor households while the lowest occurs in non-labor households. With increasing labor, the pollution load per unit area tends to first increase and then decrease within families with enough labor. (3) As the type of livelihood transitions from agriculturally dominant to non-agriculturally dominant, the maximum reduction of total pollution loading produced by the agricultural industry can reach 72.01%. Compared to agriculturally dominant livelihoods, multiple-type livelihoods produce a pollution load reduction yield of 19.61%–29.85%, and non-agriculturally dominant livelihoods reduce the pollution load yield by 35.20%–72.01%. However, the rate of reduction of total nitrogen is not the same as total phosphorus. (4) The non-agricultural characteristics of labor allocation and income promote the transformation from dominant livelihood types to non-agricultural livelihoods, while potential revenue conversion follows a similar trend. In addition, different household types do not display identical conversion rates, according to the following decreasing order: enough labor household > half-labor household > non-labor household. (5) During rapid urbanization and the building of new industrial systems, the livelihood types of rural households have been further transformed to off-farm household types in the mountainous region; this process will lead to the further reduction of pollution load generated by planting and agriculture. Hence, significant decreases in the planting pollution load necessitate the development of control measures to enhance transformations from agricultural to off-farm livelihoods.     

基于生计视角的异质性农户转户退耕决策研究

对重庆市贫困与生态脆弱区的云阳县、石柱土家族自治县376 户农户调研基础上, 将农户划为纯农户、农业主导户、非农主导户和弃农农户, 基于生计视角对农户转户退耕决策进行了解释。结果表明:①重庆市农户兼业普遍, 兼业是农户重要的生计策略;从纯农户到弃农农户, 农户生计资产依次递增, 尤其是人力资产、金融资产和社会资产。②随着兼业程度提高, 农户生计策略逐渐多元化。纯农户生计高度依赖土地;农业主导户开始选择非农兼业;非农主导户生计多样化指数最高;弃农农户生计已经转移到非农产业。③生计是影响农户转户退耕决策的关键因素:纯农户生计资产匮乏, 决策受政策导向明显;作为理性经济人, 对土地经济收益的依赖使农业主导户转户退耕意愿不明显, 对政策响应平淡;非农主导户将权衡转户退耕的补偿与损失, 政策响应模糊;弃农农户资产丰富, 对转户退耕决策响应积极。基于户籍制度改革和可持续生计视角, 本文提出了理性政府行为的3 大对策, 即:建立转户退耕的社保及补偿、激励机制;基于农户生计视角, 实施各种工程措施及惠民政策, 促进农户生计策略多元化;针对不同区位的农户实施差别化的政策。     

贫困山区农户兼业行为及其居民点用地形态——基于重庆市云阳县568户农户调查

贫困山区农户兼业现象普遍,对相关的土地利用活动影响深刻。采用重点与随机抽样、参与式农村评估和景观格局分析等方法,从微观尺度定量分析了云阳县568户农户兼业行为与居民点用地形态变化的相互关系,可为土地利用结构调整、居民点用地整理挖潜提供认识依据。结果表明:(1)云阳县农户兼业现象普遍,依据非农收入与农业收入差、非农劳动投入比重,将农户划分为纯农业型、农业主导型、农工兼具型、非农主导型、非农业型五种兼业类型;(2)老龄和女性人口少、且平均文化水平较高的农户兼业水平最高,人口数量多、分工多元化的农户兼业水平居中;(3)以农业生产为主要生计活动的纯农业型与农业主导型农户,居民点用地规模变化较小,约为180m2,土地利用粗放且多样化程度高,其中,纯农业户圈养与堆棚用地比重较高,农业主导型院坝用地比重较高;(4)农工兼具型农户的居民点用地规模扩大,约为190m2,土地利用集约度得到提高,且多样性下降,堆棚用地弱化,住房用地占主导;(5)逐渐退出农业生产的非农主导型与非农业型农户,居民点用地规模缩减,约为160～130m2,土地集约度较高,多样性下降,居民点中生产性用地比重下降、居住性用地比重上升。研究认为,农村居民点整理挖潜必须与农户的兼业需求相适应。     

生计多样化背景下种植业非点源污染负荷演变

依托三峡库区典型村农户访谈数据,基于收益最大目标决策框架,设定农村转型发展中3种农户生计类型情景：农业主导生计、兼业转向生计和非农主导生计,解析种植业产污负荷随主导生计非农转向的演变特征,探讨主导生计类型转向的动力机制。结果表明：① 样区耕地经营现状呈自耕、流转与撂荒并存的多元化发展格局,且表现出“入”小于“出”的特征,不同农户家庭类型间实际人均耕种规模为“半劳动力家庭”>“无劳动力家庭”>“劳动力家庭”;② 种植业单位面积产污负荷中,“半劳动力家庭”最高,“劳动力家庭”次之,“无劳动力家庭”最低,“劳动力家庭”内部又随劳动力人数增加呈先增再减趋势;③ 样区农户生计类型由农业主导向非农主导转型过程中,种植业产污负荷最大减幅达72.01%,兼业转向生计情景下削减幅度为19.61%~29.85%,非农主导生计情景下减幅为35.20%~72.01%,但TN、TP的减量特征并不一致;④ 劳动力配置与生计来源“非农化”促使农户主导生计类型向非农转化,生计非农演变的潜在农户收入/福祉权衡亦驱使生计决策转向非农化,不同农户家庭类型对生计转向的敏感程度表现为“劳动力家庭”>“半劳动力家庭”>“无劳动力家庭”;⑤ 在新型城镇化快速推进和创新新型工业体系构建过程中,山区农户生计类型进一步向非农转变,而这一过程又将促使种植业产生的污染负荷量进一步减少,要大幅削减种植业产污负荷,就必须制定有助于山区农户生计非农化的调控对策。