Upper Mississippi embayment shallow seismic velocities measured in situ

Vertical seismic compressional- and shear-wave (P-and S-wave) profiles were collected from three shallow boreholes in sediment of the upper Mississippi embayment. The site of the 60-m hole at Shelby Forest, Tennessee, is on bluffs forming the eastern edge of the Mississippi alluvial plain. The bluffs are composed of Pleistocene loess, Pliocene-Pleistocene alluvial clay and sand deposits, and Tertiary deltaic-marine sediment. The 36-m hole at Marked Tree, Arkansas, and the 27-m hole at Risco, Missouri, are in Holocene Mississippi river floodplain sand, silt, and gravel deposits. At each site, impulsive P- and S-waves were generated by man-made sources at the surface while a three-component geophone was locked downhole at 0.91-m intervals.

Consistent with their very similar geology, the two floodplain locations have nearly identical S-wave velocity (V_S) profiles. The lowest V_S values are about 130 m s⁻¹, and the highest values are about 300 m s⁻¹ at these sites. The shear-wave velocity profile at Shelby Forest is very similar within the Pleistocene loess (12 m thick); in deeper, older material, V_S exceeds 400 m s⁻¹.

At Marked Tree, and at Risco, the compressional-wave velocity (V_P) values above the water table are as low as about 230 m s⁻¹, and rise to about 1.9 km s⁻¹ below the water table. At Shelby Forest, V_P values in the unsaturated loess are as low as 302 m s⁻¹. V_P values below the water table are about 1.8 km s⁻¹. For the two floodplain sites, the V_P/V_S ratio increases rapidly across the water table depth. For the Shelby Forest site, the largest increase in the V_P/V_S ratio occurs at 20-m depth, the boundary between the Pliocene-Pleistocene clay and sand deposits and the Eocene shallow-marine clay and silt deposits.

Until recently, seismic velocity data for the embayment basin came from eartquake studies, crustal-scale seismic refraction and reflection profiles, sonic logs, and from analysis of dispersed earthquake surface waves. Since 1991, seismic data for shallow sediment obtained from reflection, refraction, crosshole and downhole techniques have been obtained for sites at the northern end of the embayment basin. The present borehole data, however, are measured from sites representative of large areas in the Mississippi embayment. Therefore, they fill a gap in information needed for modeling the response of the embayment to destructive seismic shaking.     

The Effects of Temperature and Pressure on the Porosity Evolution of Flechtinger Sandstone

A porosity change influences the transport properties and the elastic moduli of rock while circulating water in a geothermal reservoir. The static and dynamic elastic moduli can be derived from the slope of stress–strain curves and velocity measurements, respectively. Consequently, the acoustic velocities were measured while performing hydrostatic drained tests. The effect of temperature on static and dynamic elastic moduli and porosity variations of Flechtinger sandstone was investigated in a wide range of confining pressure from 2 to 55 MPa. The experiments were carried out in a conventional triaxial system whereas the pore pressure remained constant, confining pressure was cycled, and temperature was increased step wise (25, 60, 90, 120, and 140 °C). The porosity variation was calculated by employing two different theories: poroelasticity and crack closure. The porosity variation and crack porosity were determined by the first derivative of stress–strain curves and the integral of the second derivative of stress–strain curves, respectively. The crack porosity analysis confirms the creation of new cracks at high temperatures. The porosity variation was increasing with an increase in temperature at low effective pressures and was decreasing with a rise in temperature at high effective pressures. Both compressional and shear wave velocities were increasing with increasing pressure due to progressive crack closure. Furthermore, the thermomechanical behavior of Flechtinger sandstone was characterized by an inversion effect where the sign of the temperature derivative of the drained bulk modulus changes.     

Experimental studies on the effects of fracture on the P and S wave velocity propagation in sedimentary rock (“Calcarenite del Salento”)

Experimental studies were carried out in laboratory in order to investigate the effects of fracture on compressional (P) wave and shear (S) wave velocity propagation and therefore the relations between seismic properties and rock mass parameters. The discontinuity index, I_d, fracture density parameter C, linear fracture parameter Γ and the rock quality designation (RQD) were used to describe the rock mass parameters. These parameters are analyzed and then related to the seismic properties. Four vertical aligned fractures were created on an intact calcarenite block, 0.6 m long, 0.4 m thick and 0.4 m width, by sawing. The measures were carried out in four different blocks of cacarenite, having the same physical properties, and in four different phases: in first block the fractures were filled with air; in the second block the fractures were filled with “terra rossa”; in third block the fractures were filled with wet “terra rossa” and in the fourth block the fractures were filled with clay. The test results were statistically analysed using the method of least squares regression and polynomial relationships with high correlation coefficient were found between the fractured rock parameters and P-wave, S-wave velocities and V_p/V_s ratio. The investigations suggest that the P-wave and S-wave velocities decrease with increasing the fracture parameters, while the V_p/V_s ratio increases with decreasing the fracture parameters.

Furthermore the results of the experimental studies were applied on the seismic refraction tomography data acquired in a great measurements campaign undertaken in the Adriatic salentina coast (south Italy) in order to monitor the coastal erosion.

The geophysical results, using the polynomial relationships between the fractured rock parameters and P-wave velocity, are in good agreement with the geomorphological and geological results.     

硬脆性流纹岩变形分析的综合刚度法

天然岩石在压缩荷载作用下内部裂隙的闭合、张开、扩展过程直接影响岩石的力学性能。在经典移动点回归法的基础上,引入泊松比进行修正提出了一种6阶段变形划分方法——综合刚度法。不同加载路径下流纹岩的单轴压缩试验结果分析表明:（1）采用综合刚度法可以准确获得硬脆性岩石试样接触应变ε₀、裂隙闭合应变ε_c、弹性应变ε_e、裂隙稳定扩展应变ε_i、裂隙不稳定扩展应变ε_d和峰后应变值ε_f;（2）单轴压缩下流纹岩试样裂隙闭合应变达到峰前总应变的44.2%,峰前裂隙扩展应变和峰后应变均较小,脆性特征明显;（3）单轴压缩弹性阶段加卸载试验表明,采用综合刚度法能更准确剔除试样接触应变,获得裂隙闭合应变。综合刚度法更加适用于硬脆性岩石的变形分析,可以准确剔除试样接触应变并获得更准确的各阶段应变,特别是裂隙闭合应变,可以作为评价岩石内裂隙密度的定量参数。     

花岗岩张拉和压剪裂隙渗透率演化研究

地下工程开挖造成围岩破坏,其破坏方式可归纳分析为两类：张拉型破坏和压剪型破坏,这两种破坏导致的裂隙面的细观形态并不相同,这种不同的细观形态导致张拉和压剪型裂隙的渗透率表现出不同的演化规律。为此,对花岗岩进行了不同围压下三轴压缩试验,产生张拉和压剪型裂隙,进行含裂隙岩样在静水压力加载条件下渗透系数试验。试验表明,相比于含压剪裂隙试样,含张拉裂隙试样的渗透率对静水压力更敏感。进而,分别对不同围压条件下的三轴压缩试验获得的张拉和压剪裂隙面进行扫描电镜试验,获得张拉和压剪裂隙面的细观形态,花岗岩单轴压缩试验所产生的裂隙面表现为典型的张拉型裂隙,破裂面比较光滑;随着围压的不断增大,破裂面的细观形态发生明显的变化,从破裂面上可以明显地观察到逐渐增多的压剪型裂隙,破裂面比较粗糙。在静水压力的作用下,张拉裂隙较快闭合;而压剪裂隙的锯齿能够一定程度上阻止裂隙的闭合。张拉和压剪裂隙面的不同细观结构决定了含张拉和压剪裂隙岩样的不同渗透率演化规律。研究结果对于地下工程分析中确定围岩的渗透率具有一定的意义。     

流体饱和致密砂岩的实验测量与岩石物理建模应用

与孔隙几何相对简单的高孔隙度、高渗透率砂岩不同,致密砂岩的岩石骨架和孔隙结构通常表现出不同尺度上的非均质性。为了研究这种非均质性和饱和流体对致密砂岩性质的影响,测量了具有9块不同孔隙度的致密砂岩在不同围压、干燥和水饱和条件下的超声波速度。利用速度随有效压力的变化曲线估计软孔隙的纵横比分布,进而利用喷射流模型进行流体替换效应解释。基于超声测试数据和局部流机制,建立了考虑软孔隙随纵横比分布的喷射流模型,实现了致密砂岩跨频段岩石物理建模,利用此模型分析了超声频段和地震频段内饱和致密砂岩的流体敏感性。基于超声频段测量的流体敏感度被高估,实际上地震频段的流体敏感度可能与超声分析结果存在较大差异,因此实现实验室低频直接测量对于准确的岩石物理建模和应用具有关键性的意义。     

基于裂纹体应变的深埋大理岩加、卸荷破坏机制研究

为了弄清深埋硬岩的加、卸荷破坏机制,系统开展了深埋大理岩的常规三轴试验、保持 不变的卸围压试验和变 的卸围压试验等。以裂纹体应变为主要分析变量,结合体应变、等效塑性应变等参量深入分析上述不同应力路径下硬岩的破坏过程。运用裂纹体应变-轴向应变曲线、等效塑性应变-轴向应变曲线和轴向应力-应变曲线来解释岩石破坏过程所产生的现象与规律。结果表明：在裂纹闭合阶段岩样裂纹闭合的变化程度（裂纹体应变改变的大小）可以反映岩石的初始损伤程度;裂纹闭合阶段对岩石弹性模量的计算有重要的影响,需要根据合适的阶段划分,消除裂纹闭合阶段对弹性模量计算的影响,进而得到较为准确的弹性模量;在卸围压点处岩石的可闭合程度突然增加,裂纹体应变-轴向应变曲线发生突变;岩石卸荷破坏过程中裂纹扩展存在滞后性。研究成果有助于进一步理解深埋硬岩的加、卸荷破坏过程和机制,为深埋隧洞的灾害防治提供理论依据。     

孔隙压力作用下煤岩破裂及声发射特性的数值模拟

运用嵌入孔隙压力的岩石破裂过程分析RFPA2D系统,对孔隙压力作用下煤岩的变形强度特性进行了数值试验研究。数值试验结果表明,在孔隙压力一定时,随着围压的增加,煤岩的杨氏模量、抗压强度都随之增高;而当围压一定时,随着孔隙压力的增加,煤岩的杨氏模量、抗压强度则稍有降低,而且峰值强度后的应力-应变曲线有呈现脆性的趋势。此外数值模拟还研究了不同围压及孔隙压力作用下煤岩的声发射特性     

基于三轴试验的黄土K0固结特性研究

静止土压力系数(K₀)是岩土工程中计算侧向土压力的关键参数,原状和重塑黄土的K₀系数在固结过程中的发展规律明显区别于黏土或砂土。为研究围压和初始孔隙比对原状和重塑黄土的K₀系数的影响,采用加装高精度局部径向位移计(LVDT)的应力路径三轴仪开展了K₀固结试验研究,结果表明:(1)重塑黄土的K₀系数受初始孔隙比(e₀)的影响较为明显,当试样的初始孔隙比减小(从0.775变为0.503),其K₀系数的最大降幅为55%;然而原状黄土的K₀系数受有效围压(σ₃′)的影响较为明显,比如在σ₃′ < 350kPa时,K₀系数为0.77~0.85,在σ₃′>350kPa时,K₀系数为0.46~0.51;(2)在固结过程中,原状黄土试样和重塑黄土试样的K₀系数均发生陡降,具体表现为重塑黄土密样(e₀<0.6)的陡降发生在固结的起始阶段,重塑黄土松样(e₀ ≈ 0.77)的陡降发生在有效围压接近100kPa,而原状黄土试样的陡降发生在有效围压为350kPa附近;(3)在相同的有效围压和密度条件下,原状黄土的K₀系数大于重塑黄土。采用核磁共振技术(NMR)获取了重塑和原状黄土的孔隙分布,并辅以试样的超孔隙水压力、排水体积等数据进行了讨论,发现结构性是造成黄土K₀系数差异的主要原因。     

预制裂隙岩样宏细观力学行为颗粒流数值模拟

为了研究双轴压缩下预制裂隙岩样宏细观力学行为及裂纹扩展模式,采用颗粒流程序（PFC）先分析平行粘结模型细观参数对宏观参数的影响,接着结合完整花岗岩常规三轴压缩试验结果对其细观参数进行标定,最后借助该组参数模拟有围压下预制裂隙（上裂隙①和下裂隙②）岩样的力学特性。研究表明:基于PFC程序和标定的参数能较好地模拟完整岩样的破坏情况;随着围压增大,双裂隙岩样的峰值强度和弹性模量均增大,且裂隙②与水平向夹角α₂为90°时,两者均达到最大值;不同的α₂下,各岩样的裂纹演化均经过裂纹萌生、发展和稳定等3个阶段;随着围压的降低和轴向应力的增大,颗粒间的力链破坏情况愈严重。由于拉伸力链的集中和分布不同,水平裂隙长度方向上的裂纹沿着轴向扩展,且两裂隙的贯通呈现不同方式。     

冻融损伤与围压对层状岩石强度各向异性的影响北大核心CSCD

层状岩石具有显著的层理面结构,层理面结构的方向决定了岩石的各向异性,相邻层面的岩石物理力学性质差异和连接强度决定了各向异性的强弱,此外,层状岩石的层理结构使其易受冻融循环(FT)等风化作用的影响。为了研究冻融损伤与围压对层状岩石强度各向异性的影响,分别在0、10、20、30和40次的冻融循环和0、5、15、25和40MPa的围压条件下,使用岩石三轴试验系统(GCTS)对五种不同层理倾角的层状砂岩试件进行试验。试验结果显示,冻融循环会使岩石层理面产生裂隙,更易发生沿层理面的剪切滑移破坏,冻融40次后,β=0°的试件单轴抗压强度降低14.5%,而β=67.5°的试件单轴抗压强度降低57.9%,使层状岩石的固有各向异性增强。围压对岩石的各向异性影响与其固有各向异性有关,表现为随着冻融次数的累积,围压对岩石的应力诱导各向异性由起初的增强逐渐转变为抑制。本研究可为寒区层状岩石工程的设计、施工和安全运行提供理论支持。     

Effects of temperature on strength and compressibility of sand-bentonite buffer

Dense sand-bentonite buffer (γ_d = 1.67Mg/m³) has been proposed in Canada as one of several barriers for isolating nuclear fuel waste. The buffer will be required to function under conditions of high total pressures and elevated temperatures approaching 100°C. Summary results are presented from two test programs: (1) isothermal consolidated undrained triaxial (CIU¯) tests; and (2) isothermal drained constant-p′ (CID) triaxial tests. Specimens were consolidated at effective stresses up to 9.0 MPa and temperatures up to 100°C.

The results indicate parallel hardening lines at systematically lower values of specific volume at elevated temperatures. In shear, increased temperatures produced lower values of maximum deviator stressq_f, and higher pore water pressure changesΔu_f. The net result is curved peak strength envelops in plots ofq_f versusp_f′ that are higher at elevated temperatures, even though the strengths,q_f of individual specimens are lower. The critical state strength envelope is curved inq, p′-planes.

The effect of drained heating on buffer to 100°C is not marked. Compressibilities, stiffnesses, strengths, and pore water pressure generation are all affected, but none of the changes are great.     

爆破开挖对岩体含水裂纹扩展的扰动机制

岩体裂纹的水力劈裂是岩体开裂渗漏甚至施工涌水的重要影响因素之一,也是岩土工程界的研究热点。从断裂力学角度分析了爆破开挖对岩体含水裂纹扩展的扰动作用,结果表明,爆破开挖扰动下,岩体含水裂纹的扩展,与爆炸应力波强度及其入射角、地应力的大小与方向、孔隙水压大小、裂纹的倾角及断裂韧度等因素相关;爆炸应力波的作用,相当于增大了岩体裂纹中的孔隙水压力,每1 cm/s的峰值振动速度相当于增大100 kPa的孔隙水压力,爆破振动速度越大,所产生的爆破扰动荷载越大;岩体开挖引起的岩体裂纹近区地应力及其孔隙水压力的变化,对裂纹的失稳与扩展具有较复杂的影响,可改变裂纹的失稳扩展模式。     

三轴应力作用下岩盐溶蚀特性试验研究

通过大量的三轴应力作用下岩盐溶蚀特性试验,对岩盐溶蚀特性进行了研究,结果表明,对于岩盐溶解速率来说,三轴应力作用的影响不可忽略;采用宏观溶解速率（即溶蚀质量）与围压、塑性体应变和溶解时间之间的关系来定量描述三轴应力作用下岩盐溶解速率的变化,并在试验的基础上获得了宏观溶解速率与围压、塑性体应变和溶解时间之间的关系表达式;在相同的溶解时间、塑性体应变条件下,不同围压下岩盐试样溶蚀前后的形态差异较明显,应力影响质量变化较大,且随着围压的增加,试样溶蚀后形态的变化越小,应力影响质量越小;揭示了三轴应力作用下岩盐溶蚀特性变化机制,得出三轴应力作用下岩盐溶解速率变化与不同围压下表面裂纹的发育与扩展有着直接的联系。该研究成果为进一步研究岩盐应力-溶解耦合机制奠定了试验依据以及理论基础。     

一种测量岩石压缩裂纹扩展过程声波波速的连续测量方法

中低围压或单轴压缩荷载条件下,可以将脆性岩石材料的裂纹扩展过程划分为原生裂纹压密、新生裂纹起裂并稳定扩展、不稳定裂纹扩展和交互贯通以及峰后5个主要发展阶段。含预制裂纹试样的直接观测法、应变监测、声发射（AE）监测、声波波速测试、CT（computerized tomography）扫描、微电镜观察等间接监测方法被用来研究裂纹起裂和扩展过程。本文基于在中、低围压以及单轴压缩荷载条件下,脆性岩石材料首先产生张拉裂纹,并优先沿加载方向发育的规律,提出采用声波波速连续测量方法进行岩石加载过程波速的连续观测,有助于分析裂纹扩展过程中声波波速的变化,为研究裂纹扩展过程提供一种间接测量手段。     

类砂质泥岩常规三轴浆压致裂起裂压力试验研究

为深入探究两淮矿区典型砂质泥岩劈裂注浆起裂机制,研制了常规三轴劈裂注浆试验装置,开展了类砂质泥岩浆压致裂起裂压力模型试验,基于试验结果分析了岩石强度与应力状态对注浆起裂压力、裂缝扩展形态影响规律,揭示了砂质泥岩劈裂注浆起裂机制。研究表明：起裂压力与岩石抗压强度呈正相关,且岩石抗压强度越高,劈裂路径越复杂;起裂压力对围压的敏感程度远高于轴压,且应力差 Δσ =σ_V −σ_H越大,裂缝形态越规整;孔压三轴条件下,封闭裸孔段浆压致裂法确定的岩石抗拉强度值约为单轴抗拉强度的 2.5倍。该研究结果可为今后类似岩层劈裂注浆参数设计与施工提供参考。     

花岗岩动三轴抗压强度的裂纹模型研究(Ⅱ):应用

根据压缩载荷作用下的滑移型裂纹模型，结合裂纹的动态断裂准则，模拟了花岗岩在应变速度从10^-4-10^0s^-1以及围压力20，50，80MPa时的强度特性。结果表明，模拟结果与实验结果基本一致。还探讨了地从裂纹扩展和聚合特性入手揭示岩石材料强度随应变速率以及围压变化的机理。     

破裂面水压对砂板岩峰后强度影响的试验研究

在MTS815 Flex Test GT岩石力学试验系统上进行不同围压下砂板岩三轴压缩全过程试验,并测试破裂岩体试样峰后的天然含水状态强度。对试样破裂面施加4级动水压力和静水压力,分别获得天然含水状态和每级水压下破裂岩体试样的强度。试验结果及分析表明,水对破裂岩体强度影响的作用机制主要表现在饱和软化与水压弱化两方面,即饱和软化作用不随水压的增减而变化和水压力对强度的弱化作用随水压升高而线性增大;主要影响强度参数中的黏聚力,对内摩擦系数的影响较小;裂隙岩体中静水压力的弱化作用强于动水压力。试验与分析还获得水对裂隙岩体的饱和软化以及静水压力综合作用的定量表达,并对这些成果的工程应用进行讨论。     

不同温度条件下饱水风化花岗岩强度及变形特性分析

为研究温度和围压对风化花岗岩抗压强度、 剪切强度参数及变形特性的影响规律, 以新疆天山某一矿区的风化花岗岩为研究对象, 对不同温度（15、 -5、 -15 ℃）、 不同围压（0、 4、 7、 10 MPa）条件下的饱水风化花岗岩进行单轴和三轴压缩试验。结果表明： 相同温度条件下, 围压在0 ~ 10 MPa变化时, 风化花岗岩三轴抗压强度随围压线性增大。在相同围压下, 抗压强度随温度的降低而明显提高, 风化花岗岩的黏聚力c随温度降低而增大, 内摩擦角φ随温度的降低呈增长趋势。弹性模量随围压的增大不断提高, 但随着温度的降低, 增长幅度逐渐减小。泊松比也随温度降低和围压的增加呈增大趋势。温度和围压对风化花岗岩试样的破坏形态影响机制不同。温度降低使矿物颗粒及内部的微裂纹和间隙收缩, 进而胶结强度增大; 荷载和围压的增大会使岩石内部形成微裂隙并逐渐贯通, 同时孔隙冰破碎裂隙充分接触, 进一步增加摩擦力提高岩石强度。     

基于动三轴试验的大光包滑坡层间错动带动力特性研究

大光包滑坡是2008年汶川地震触发的最大规模滑坡, 平硐揭示该滑坡滑带形成于糜棱质化、泥化的层间错动带, 且地下水从该错动带渗出。为分析强震过程饱水错动带材料动力特性, 本文作者在平硐内取不同层位错动带材料C₁(粉粒为主)、C₂(粉黏粒为主)和C₃(砂粒为主), 室内进行了系列动三轴试验, 得出如下结论:(1)在设计动荷载(40 kPa、60 kPa和80 kPa)下, C₁、C₂孔压增长缓慢, 没有液化; 而C₃孔压增长迅速, 5%应变时动孔压增长到围压值, 试样液化。(2)试样动剪应力值与振动次数关系较大; 随着振次增加C₃动剪应力值明显减小, 而C₁、C₂动剪应力小幅度减小; (3)在相同动应变下, C₃动应力和动弹性模量最大, 动阻尼比最小; 而C₂动应力和弹性模量最小, 动阻尼比最大。结果表明, 大光包层间错动带在地震中可能发生液化, 从而导致错动带抗剪强度骤然降低, 滑坡快速启动。