New age constraints for Grenville-age metamorphism in western central Dronning Maud Land (East Antarctica), and implications for the palaeogeography of Kalahari in Rodinia

New SHRIMP zircon data from Gjelsvikfjella and Mühlig–Hofmann–Gebirge (East Antarctica) indicate that the metamorphic basement is composed of Grenville-age rocks that are most likely part of the north-eastern continuation of the Namaqua–Natal–Maud Belt. Crystallisation ages of meta-igneous rocks range between ca. 1,150 to 1,100 Ma, with little inheritance recorded. Metamorphic zircon overgrowth during high-grade metamorphism is dated between ca. 1,090 to 1,050 Ma. Both, the crystallisation ages and the metamorphic overprint are similar to U–Pb data from a number of areas along a ca. 2,000-km stretch from Natal in South Africa to central Dronning Maud Land. The basement underwent in part strong high-grade reworking during the collision of East and West Gondwana at ca. 550 Ma. The timing of Grenville-age metamorphism has important implications for the position of Kalahari in Rodinia. It also questions that Coats Land is part of the Maud Belt because the undeformed volcanic rocks of Coats Land are older than the main metamorphism within the Maud Belt and, therefore, must rest on older basement. This interpretation explains why the pole of Coats Land at ca. 1,110 Ma differs from the Kalahari poles by 30°, i.e. Coats Land had not yet amalgamated to Kalahari. On the other hand, the palaeopoles from Coats Land and Laurentia at 1,110 Ma are identical within error. Thus, Coats Land could have been part of Laurentia prior to the final amalgamation of Rodinia, the Namaqua–Natal–Maud Belt could have been a part of the Grenville Belt and the entire Kalahari Craton could indeed have opposed Laurentia on its eastern side.     

Stenian A-type granitoids in the Namaqua-Natal Belt,southern Africa,Maud Belt,Antarctica and Nampula Terrane,Mozambique:Rodinia and Gondwana amalgamation implications

We carried out SHRIMP zircon U-Pb dating on A-type granitic intrusions from the Namaqua-Natal Province,South Africa,Sverdrupfjella,western Dronning Maud Land,Antarctica and the Nampula Province of northern Mozambique.Zircon grains in these granitic rocks are typically elongated and oscillatory zoned,suggesting magmatic origins.Zircons from the granitoid intrusions analyzed in this study suggest~1025-1100 Ma ages,which confirm widespread Mesoproterozoic A-type granitic magmatism in the Namaqua-Natal(South Africa),Maud(Antarctica) and Mozambique metamorphic terrains.No older inherited(e.g.,~2500 Ma Achean basement or~1200 Ma island are magmatism in northern Natal)zircon grains were seen.Four plutons from the Natal Belt(Mvoti Pluton,Glendale Pluton,Kwalembe Pluton,Ntimbankulu Pluton) display 1050-1040 Ma ages,whereas the Nthlimbitwa Pluton in northern Natal indicates older 1090-1080 Ma ages.A sample from Sverdrupfjella,Antarctica has~1091 Ma old zircons along with~530 Ma metamorphic rims.Similarly,four samples analysed from the Nampula Province of Mozambique suggest crystallization ages of~1060-1090 Ma but also show significant discordance with two samples showing younger~550 Ma overgrowths.None of the Natal samples show any younger overgrowths.A single sample from southwestern Namaqualand yielded an age of~1033 Ma.Currently available chronological data suggest magmatism took place in the Namaqua-Natal-MaudMozambique(NNMM) belt between~1025 Ma and~1100 Ma with two broad phases between~1060-1020 Ma and 1100-1070 Ma respectively,with peaks at between~1030-1040 Ma and~1070-1090 Ma.The age data from the granitic intrusions from Namaqualand.combined with those from Natal,Antarctica and Mozambique suggest a crude spatial-age relationship with the older1070 Ma ages being largely restricted close to the eastern and western margins of the Kalahari Craton in northern Natal,Mozambique.Namaqualand and WDML Antarctica whereas the younger 1060 Ma ages dominate in southern Natal and western Namaqualand and are largely restricted to the southern and possibly the western margins of the Kalahari Craton.The older ages of magmatism partially overlap with or are marginally younger than the intracratonic Mkondo Large lgneous Provinee intruded into or extruded onto the Kalahari Craton,suggesting a tectonic relationship with the Maud Belt.Similar ages from granitic augen gneisses in Sri Lanka suggest a continuous belt stretching from Namaqualand to Sri Lanka in a reconstituted Gondwana,formed during the terminal stages of amalgamation of Rodinia and predating the East African Orogen.This contiguity contributes to defining the extent of Rodinia-age crustal blocks,subsequently fragmented by the dispersal of Rodinia and Gondwana.     

New SHRIMP,Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd isotope and whole rock chemical data from central Mozambique and western Dronning Maud Land,Antarctica: Implications for the nature of the eastern margin of the Kalahari Craton and the amalgamation of Gondwana

Whole rock major and trace element data from granitoids adjacent to the Kalahari Craton–Mozambique–Maud Belt boundary are described. The data from ～1140 Ma old granodioritic and ～1110 Ma old granitic bodies in the Mozambique Belt show that they are typical of calc-alkaline and A-type granitoids respectively. Radiogenic Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd isotope data from the two granitoid bodies suggest significant older crustal contributions during their genesis. The granodioritic gneisses show T_DM model ages of ～2100–3500 Ma whereas megacrystic granitic gneisses have T_DM model ages of ～1600–3100 Ma. Granite from the Archaean-age Kalahari Craton has T_DM model ages of ～3000–3500 Ma.The data from Mozambique are compared with whole rock major and trace element chemistry and U/Pb zircon SHRIMP data from the Maud Belt in western Dronning Maud Land. These show that ～1140 Ma old granodioritic gneisses in Sverdrupfjella and Kirwanveggan have similar ages and chemical compositions to similar rocks in central Mozambique. Radiogenic isotope characteristics of the gneisses from central Mozambique and Sverdrupfjella are similar and suggest older crustal contributions in contrast to the juvenile nature of the gneisses from Kirwanveggan.Similarly, ～1090 Ma old granitic gneisses from central Mozambique, Sverdrupfjella and Kirwanveggan have similar ages and A-type chemical compositions. In contrast the radiogenic isotope compositions from Kirwanveggan are juvenile whereas those from central Mozambique show a significant older crustal contribution.The whole rock radiogenic isotope data can be interpreted to suggest that the Mesoproterozoic Mozambique Belt rocks were generated by partial melting which probably involved mixing of Archaean/Paleoproterozoic crust and younger Mesoproterozoic juvenile magma at ～1100 Ma and suggest that the Kalahari Craton probably extends eastwards at depths for more than 30 km from its exposure at surface.The data support correlations between the Mozambique Belt and the Maud Belt in Antarctica in general and more specifically show similarities between the Kalahari Craton boundary and the Mozambique–Maud Belt in lithologies immediately adjacent to that boundary.Two episodes of anatectic migmatisation are recognized in rocks from the Mozambique Belt in central Mozambique. These show an earlier migmatitic vein phase oriented parallel to the planar foliation in the granitic and tonalitic gneisses and a later discordant vein phase which is oriented parallel to localized but intense N–S oriented shearing along the Kalahari Craton/Mozambique Belt boundary zone. SHRIMP zircon data from the younger migmatitic vein phase suggests a crystallization age of 997 ± 4 Ma. Small numbers of inherited zircons have ages of ～2700 Ma and ～1100–1200 Ma. Younger discordant analyses suggesting metamorphic disturbance between ～400 Ma and 550 Ma are seen. The data imply the high strain along the eastern margin of the Kalahari Craton in the Manica area, occurred at ～1000 Ma and not at ～450 Ma as was previously thought. The data suggest the Pan African deformation and metamorphism in the area involved minor reworking. The undeformed to weakly deformed Tchinadzandze Granodiorite intruded into the Kalahari Craton has an age of 2617 ± 16 Ma.     

Pan-African reactivation of the Lurio segment of the Kibaran Belt system: a reappraisal from recent age determinations in northern Mozambique

The role of the Lurio Belt in northern Mozambique, and the geological evolution of its foreland in the Proterozoic are discussed in the light of recent, single zircon age determinations showing Pan-African age for the granulite-facies metamorphism. The following tentative conclusions are reached, and evidence for and against them is reviewed. The Lurio Belt had a two-fold history, as a crust-forming orogen during the Kibaran and as a transpressive suture in Pan-African times. Together with the Zambezi Belt and the Schlesien-Mwembeshi Lineament, it formed a 3000 km discontinuity which underwent an embryonic oceanic development before being sutured during the Pan-African collisional event. The Lurio Belt foreland had a tectonic-metamorphic evolution at ca 1000 Ma, prior to major, Pan-African overprinting and was probably continuous with the basement of Queen Maud Land (Antarctica) and Natal. In Pan-African times, clockwise transpressive movements along the Lurio Belt brought about emplacement of granulite klippen in its foreland. If there is a southward continuation of the Pan-African Mozambique Belt beyond Mozambique, it is probably to be found in Antarctica.     

Pan-African Tectonism in the Western Maud Belt: P-T-t Path for High-grade Gneisses in the H.U. Sverdrupfjella, East Antarctica

Extensive high-grade polydeformed metamorphic provinces surroundingArchaean cratonic nuclei in the East Antarctic Shield recordtwo tectono-thermal episodes in late Mesoproterozoic and lateNeoproterozoic–Cambrian times. In Western Dronning MaudLand, the high-grade Mesoproterozoic Maud Belt is juxtaposedagainst the Archaean Grunehogna Province and has traditionallybeen interpreted as a Grenvillian mobile belt that was thermallyoverprinted during the Early Palaeozoic. Integration of newU–Pb sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe and conventionalsingle zircon and monazite age data, and Ar–Ar data onhornblende and biotite, with thermobarometric calculations onrocks from the H.U. Sverdrupfjella, northern Maud Belt, resultedin a more complex P–T–t evolution than previouslyassumed. A c. 540 Ma monazite, hosted by an upper ampibolite-faciesmineral assemblage defining a regionally dominant top-to-NWshear fabric, provides strong evidence for the penetrative deformationin the area being of Pan-African age and not of Grenvillianage as previously reported. Relics of an eclogite-facies garnet–omphaciteassemblage within strain-protected mafic boudins indicate thatthe peak metamorphic conditions recorded by most rocks in thearea (T = 687–758°C, P = 9·4–11·3kbar) were attained subsequent to decompression from P >12·9 kbar. By analogy with limited U–Pb singlezircon age data and on circumstantial textural grounds, thisearlier eclogite-facies metamorphism is ascribed to subductionand accretion around 565 Ma. Post-peak metamorphic K-metasomatismunder amphibolite-facies conditions is ascribed to the intrusionof post-orogenic granite at c. 480 Ma. The recognition of extensivePan-African tectonism in the Maud Belt casts doubts on previousRodinia reconstructions, in which this belt takes a pivotalposition between East Antarctica, the Kalahari Craton and Laurentia.Evidence of late Mesoproterozoic high-grade metamorphism duringthe formation of the Maud Belt exists in the form of c. 1035Ma zircon overgrowths that are probably related to relics ofgranulite-facies metamorphism recorded from other parts of theMaud Belt. The polymetamorphic rocks are largely derived froma c. 1140 Ma volcanic arc and 1072 ± 10 Ma granite. KEY WORDS: Maud Belt; Pan-African orogeny; geochronology; P–T–t path, East Antarctica     

Geochronology of the Precambrian crust in the Mozambique belt in NE Mozambique, and implications for Gondwana assembly

Zircon and monazite U–Pb data document the geochronology of the felsic crust in the Mozambique Belt in NE Mozambique. Immediately E of Lake Niassa and NW of the Karoo-aged Maniamba Graben, the Ponta Messuli Complex preserves Paleoproterozoic gneisses with granulite-facies metamorphism dated at 1950 ± 15 Ma, and intruded by granite at 1056 ± 11 Ma. This complex has only weak evidence for a Pan-African metamorphism. Between the Maniamba Graben and the WSW–ENE-trending Lurio (shear) Belt, the Unango and Marrupa Complexes consist mainly of felsic orthogneisses dated between 1062 ± 13 and 946 ± 11 Ma, and interlayered with minor paragneisses. In these complexes, an amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism is dated at 953 ± 8 Ma and a nepheline syenite pluton is dated at 799 ± 8 Ma. Pan-African deformation and high-grade metamorphism are more intense and penetrative southwards, towards the Lurio Belt. Amphibolite-facies metamorphism is dated at 555 ± 11 Ma in the Marrupa Complex and amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism between 569 ± 9 and 527 ± 8 Ma in the Unango Complex. Post-collisional felsic plutonism, dated between 549 ± 13 and 486 ± 27 Ma, is uncommon in the Marrupa Complex but common in the Unango Complex. To the south of the Lurio Belt, the Nampula Complex consists of felsic orthogneisses which gave ages ranging from 1123 ± 9 to 1042 ± 9 Ma, interlayered with paragneisses. The Nampula Complex underwent amphibolite-facies metamorphism in the period between 543 ± 23 to 493 ± 8 Ma, and was intruded by voluminous post-collisional granitoid plutons between 511 ± 12 and 508 ± 3 Ma. In a larger context, the Ponta Messuli Complex is regarded as part of the Palaeoproterozoic, Usagaran, Congo-Tanzania Craton foreland of the Pan-African orogen. The Unango, Marrupa and Nampula Complexes were probably formed in an active margin setting during the Mesoproterozoic. The Unango and Marrupa Complexes were assembled on the margin of the Congo-Tanzania Craton during the Irumidian orogeny (ca. 1020–950 Ma), together with terranes in the Southern Irumide Belt. The distinctly older Nampula Complex was more probably linked to the Maud Belt of Antarctica, and peripheral to the Kalahari Craton during the Neoproterozoic. During the Pan-African orogeny, the Marrupa Complex was overlain by NW-directed nappes of the Cabo Delgado Nappe Complex before peak metamorphism at ca. 555 Ma. The nappes include evidence for early Pan-African orogenic events older than 610 Ma, typical for the Eastern Granulites in Tanzania. Crustal thickening at 555 ± 11 Ma is coeval with high-pressure granulite-facies metamorphism along the Lurio Belt at 557 ± 16 Ma. Crustal thickening in NE Mozambique is part of the main Pan-African, Kuunga, orogeny peaking between 570 and 530 Ma, during which the Congo-Tanzania, Kalahari, East Antarctica and India Cratons welded to form Gondwana. Voluminous post-collisional magmatism and metamorphism younger than 530 Ma in the Lurio Belt and the Nampula Complex are taken as evidence of gravitational collapse of the extensive orogenic domain south of the Lurio Belt after ca. 530 Ma. The Lurio Belt may represent a Pan-African suture zone between the Kalahari and Congo-Tanzania Craton.     

Tectonometamorphic Evolution of Jutulsessen,Gjelsvikfjella, cDML,East Antarctica

The Jutulsessen area, can provide a vital clue to the supercontinent assembly of Gondwana Land as it is situated within the Circum East Antarctic Mobile Belt just east of the Penksockett rift marking the divide between the central Dronning Maud Land from the Western Dronning Maud Land. This landmass is dominated by migmatitic quartzo-feldspathic rocks intruded by syn to post-tectonic granites. The work highlights the data from western part cDML area with a view to arrive at a more comprehensive model for the cDML and subsequently to the super continent assembly. Granitic and migmatitic gneisses comprising of amphibolitic and biotite rich enclaves. The gneisses show variations from quartzo-felspathic gneiss to amphibolitic gneiss. The area has witnessed complex geological history involving at different deformational episodes with concomitant metamorphism. The pervasive dominant foliation trends NW-SE with shallow to medium dips towards SW. In the Stabben area, a nonfoliated intrusive syenite-gabbro pluton limits the gneissic exposures. Compositionally, the orthogneisses plot in the monzogranitegranodiorite field where as the mafic dykes/enclaves plot in the basalt-andesite-rhyodacite field. The bulk geochemical characteristics suggest significant crustal contamination. Garnet-biotite Fe-Mg exchange thermometry gives peak metamorphic temperature of 483° C for the gneisses and 628° C for the dioritic enclave within gneisses. A peak metamorphic grade of upper amphibolite to granulite facies is deduced from the mineral assemblages. Widespread anatexis has led to extensive occurrence of migmatites in the area. Recent geochronological studies assign an age of 1170 Ma to 970 Ma for the migmatites/gneisses and an emplacement age of 501 Ma for the Stabben gabbro and syenite. The discriminant plots of the Jutulsessen rocks indicate diverse origin ranging from pre-plate collision to post-collision orogenic tectonic setting. The mafic enclaves/dykes show ocean island arc to MORB affinities. Voluminous addition of juvenile crust during the Pan-African orogeny strongly overprints earlier structures.     

Tectonic implications of new single zircon Pb-Pb evaporation data in the Lossogonoi and Longido ruby-districts,Mozambican metamorphic Belt of north-eastern Tanzania

Three single zircon Pb-Pb evaporation dating studies were performed on felsic orthogneisses and migmatites from the Longido and Lossogonoi ruby districts, Mozambique Belt of north-eastern Tanzania, in order to better constrain the geological setting of gemstone mineralizations. Igneous emplacement ages of protoliths ranging between 2636 and 2448 Ma document for the first time the presence of a Neoarchean to Lower Paleoproterozoic (Siderian) basement reworked in the Late Neoproterozoic Mozambique Belt of north-eastern Tanzania. This ancient crust of unknown dimension is well documented farther south, but also in south-eastern Kenya. A shearing event under high-grade amphibolite facies conditions, postdating the Pan-African metamorphic peak at 640 Ma and following nappes emplacement is demonstrated at ca. 610 Ma from metamorphic zircons of Lossogonoi district. In Lossogonoi district, ruby crystallizes during this last stage of deformation.     

Neoproterozoic Crustal Evolution of Northwestern Indian Shield: Implications on Break up and Assembly of Supercontinents

The Neoproterozoic geological history in western Rajasthan, northwest Indian Shield began with the intrusion of anorogenic bodies of diorites at ca. 1000 Ma. Recently available single zircon dates indicate possible continuity of the “Grenville belt” beyond Eastern Ghats through the Satpura Orogenic Belt into the Aravalli Mountains. Closely following this tectono-thermal event at the Meso-Neoproterozoic boundary, some narrow basins opened west of the Aravalli Mountains. The basin closing related to the tectonic inversion and associated magmatism at ca. 835 Ma completed the cratonisation process of the Precambrian Aravalli crust. Subsequent geological events witnessed over a wide region to the southwest of the Aravalli Mountains, were in the form of “plume-related” magmatism of the Malani Group, which comprises bimodal volcanics (dominantly felsic and minor mafic), minor sediments, and peraluminous and peralkaline granitoids. An unconformity indicating a hiatus is noticed at the base of the Malani Group. The final phase of the Neoproterozoic cratonic history is associated with thick platformal deposits of the Marwar Supergroup. The Marwar basins show a clear sedimentological affiliation with the sub-Himalayan basin of “Saline Series” in Pakistan.The beginning of the Neoproterozoic history in the northwestern Indian Shield is correlated with the events related to the possible break up of the Rodinia Supercontinent. Much of the later phases of the Neoproterozoic geological events witnessed in the Indian Shield are traditionally described as the “Pan-African”. However, the geological events recorded in the northwestern part of Indian Shield are neither strictly coeval nor are tectonically correlatable with the ‘orogeny and fabric-forming contemporary events’ of the East African Orogeny (EAO), which is undoubtedly the type terrane of the Pan-African Tectono-thermal Belt. The evolution of the northwestern Indian Shield during the Neoproterozoic does not appear to be related in any way with the Pan-African events observed in EAO. Further, the most talked about ‘Pan-African’ dates at ca. 500±50 Ma, are manifestations of anorogenic thermal event, which possibly marks an aborted attempt to fragment the ‘Greater Gondwana’ during the early Palaeozoic.     

SHRIMP U–Pb zircon geochronology of high-grade rocks and charnockites from the eastern Amery Ice Shelf and southwestern Prydz Bay, East Antarctica: Constraints on Late Mesoproterozoic to Cambrian tectonothermal events related to supercontinent assembly

The eastern Amery Ice Shelf (EAIS) and southwestern Prydz Bay are situated near the junction between the Late Neoproterozoic/Cambrian high-grade complex of the Prydz Belt and the Early Neoproterozoic Rayner Complex. The area contains an important geological section for understanding the tectonic evolution of East Antarctica. SHRIMP U–Pb analyses on zircons of felsic orthogneisses and mafic granulites from the area indicate that their protoliths were emplaced during four episodes of ca. 1380 Ma, ca. 1210–1170 Ma, ca. 1130–1120 Ma and ca. 1060–1020 Ma. Subsequently, these rocks experienced two episodes of high-grade metamorphism at > 970 Ma and ca. 930–900 Ma, and furthermore, most of them (except for some from the Munro Kerr Mountains and Reinbolt Hills) were subjected to high-grade metamorphic recrystallization at ca. 535 Ma. Two suites of charnockite, i.e. the Reinbolt and Jennings charnockites, intrude the Late Mesoproterozoic/Early Neoproterozoic and Late Neoproterozoic/Cambrian high-grade complexes at > 955 Ma and 500 Ma, respectively. These, together with associated granites of similar ages, reflect late- to post-orogenic magmatism occurring during the two major orogenic events. The similarity in age patterns suggests that the EAIS–Prydz Bay region may have suffered from the same high-grade tectonothermal evolution with the Rayner Complex and the Eastern Ghats of India. Three segments might constitute a previously unified Late Mesoproterozoic/Early Neoproterozoic orogen that resulted from the long-term magmatic accretion from ca. 1380 to 1020 Ma and eventual collision before ca. 900 Ma between India and the western portion of East Antarctica. The Prydz Belt may have developed on the eastern margin of the Indo-Antarctica continental block, and the Late Neoproterozoic/Cambrian suture assembling Indo-Antarctica and Australo-Antarctica continental blocks should be located southeastwards of the EAIS–Prydz Bay region.     

Petrology,geochemistry, and zircon U-Pb geochronology of the Zambezi Belt in Zimbabwe: Implications for terrane assembly in southern Africa

The Zambezi Belt in southern Africa has been regarded as a part of the 570-530 Ma Kuunga Orogen formed by a series of collision of Archean cratons and Proterozoic orogenic belts.Here,we report new petrological,geochemical,and zircon U-Pb geochronological data of various metamorphic rocks(felsic to mafic orthogneiss,pelitic schist,and felsic paragneiss) from the Zambezi Belt in northeastern Zimbabwe,and evaluate the timing and P-T conditions of the collisional event as well as protolith formation.Geochemical data of felsic orthogneiss indicate within-plate granite signature,whereas those of mafic orthogneiss suggest MORB,ocean-island,or within-plate affinities.Metamorphic P-Testimates for orthogneisses indicate significant P-T variation within the study area(700-780 C/6.7-7.2 kbar to 800-875 C/10-11 kbar) suggesting that the Zambezi Belt might correspond to a suture zone with several discrete crustal blocks.Zircon cores from felsic orthogneisses yielded two magmatic ages:2655±21 Ma and 813士5 Ma,which suggests Neoarchean and Early Neoproterozoic crustal growth related to within-plate magmatism.Detrital zircons from metasediments display various ages from Neoarchean to Neoproterozoic(ca.2700-750 Ma).The Neoarchean(ca.2700-2630 Ma) and Paleoproterozoic(ca.2200-1700 Ma) zircons could have been derived from the adjacent Kalahari Craton and the Magondi Belt in Zimbabwe,respectively.The Choma-Kalomo Block and the Lufilian Belt in Zambia might be proximal sources of the Meso-to Neoproterozoic(ca.1500-950 Ma) and early Neoproterozoic(ca.900-750 Ma) detrital zircons,respectively.Such detrital zircons from adjacent terranes possibly deposited during late Neoproterozoic(744-670 Ma),and subsequently underwent highgrade metamorphism at 557-555 Ma possibly related to the collision of the Congo and Kalahari Cratons during the latest Neoproterozoic to Cambrian.In contrast,670-627 Ma metamorphic ages obtained from metasediments are slightly older than previous reports,but consistent with~680-650 Ma metamorphic ages reported from different parts of the Kuunga Orogen,suggesting Cryogenian thermal events before the final collision.     

Magma flow in dyke swarms of the Karoo LIP: Implications for the mantle plume hypothesis

The ~ 183 Ma old Karoo Large Igneous Province extends across southern Africa and is related to magmatism in Antarctica (west Dronning Maud Land and Transantarctic Mountains) and parts of Australasia. Intrusive events, including the emplacement of at least ten dyke swarms, occurred between ~ 183 Ma and ~ 174 Ma. We review here the field evidence, structure and geochronology of the dyke swarms and related magmatism as it relates to melt sources and the mantle plume hypothesis for the Karoo LIP. Specifically, the magma flow-related fabric(s) in 90 dykes from five of these swarms is reviewed, paying particular attention to those that converge on triple junctions in southern Africa and Antarctica. The northern Lebombo and Rooi Rand dyke swarms form an integral part of the Lebombo monocline, which converges upon the Karoo triple junction at Mwenezi, southern Zimbabwe. Dykes of the Northern Lebombo dyke swarm (182–178 Ma) appear to have initially intruded vertically, followed later by lateral flow in the youngest dykes. In dykes of the Okavango dyke swarm (178 Ma) there is evidence of steep magma flow proximal to the triple junction, and lateral flow from the southeast to the northwest in the distal regions. This is consistent with the Karoo triple junction and the shallow mantle being a viable magma source for both these dyke swarms. In the Rooi Rand dyke swarm (174 Ma) there is also evidence of vertical and inclined magma flow from north to south. This flow direction cannot be reconciled with the Karoo triple junction, as the northern termination of the Rooi Rand dyke swarm is in east-central Swaziland. The Jutulrøra and Straumsvola dyke swarms of Dronning Maud Land display evidence of sub-vertical magma flow in the north and lateral flow further south. The regional pattern of magma flow is therefore not compatible with direction expected from the Weddell Sea triple junction. The overall flow pattern in Karoo dykes is consistent with the triple junction being an important magma source. However, the Limpopo Belt and Kaapvaal Craton have significantly controlled the structure and distribution of the Lebombo and Save–Limpopo monoclines and the Okavango dyke swarm. The locus of magma flow in dykes of Dronning Maud Land is at least 500 km from the Karoo triple junction, as is the apparent locus for the Rooi Rand dyke swarm. In comparison with recent modelling of continental assembly, the structure and flow of the dyke swarms, linked with geochronology and geochemistry, suggests that thermal incubation during Gondwana assembly led to Karoo magmatism. A plate tectonic, rather than a fluid dynamic plume explanation, is most reasonably applicable to the development of the Karoo LIP which does not bear evidence of a deep-seated, plume source.     

Neoproterozoic,Paleozoic, and Mesozoic granitoid magmatism in the Qinling Orogen,China: Constraints on orogenic process

The Qinling Orogen is one of the main orogenic belts in Asia and is characterized by multi-stage orogenic processes and the development of voluminous magmatic intrusions. The results of zircon U–Pb dating indicate that granitoid magmatism in the Qinling Orogen mainly occurred in four distinct periods: the Neoproterozoic (979–711 Ma), Paleozoic (507–400 Ma), and Early (252–185 Ma) and Late (158–100 Ma) Mesozoic. The Neoproterozoic granitic magmatism in the Qinling Orogen is represented by strongly deformed S-type granites emplaced at 979–911 Ma, weakly deformed I-type granites at 894–815 Ma, and A-type granites at 759–711 Ma. They can be interpreted as the products of respectively syn-collisional, post-collisional and extensional setting, in response to the assembly and breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent. The Paleozoic magmatism can be temporally classified into three stages of 507–470 Ma, 460–422 Ma and ∼415–400 Ma. They were genetically related to the subduction of the Shangdan Ocean and subsequent collision of the southern North China Block and the South Qinling Belt. The 507–470 Ma magmatism is spatially and temporally related to ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism in the studied area. The 460–422 Ma magmatism with an extensive development in the North Qinling Belt is characterized by I-type granitoids and originated from the lower crust with the involvement of mantle-derived magma in a collisional setting. The magmatism with the formation age of ∼415–400 Ma only occurred in the middle part of the North Qinling Belt and is dominated by I-type granitoid intrusions, and probably formed in the late-stage of a collisional setting. Early Mesozoic magmatism in the study area occurred between 252 and 185 Ma, with the cluster in 225–200 Ma. It took place predominantly in the western part of the South Qinling Belt. The 250–240 Ma I-type granitoids are of small volume and show high Sr/Y ratios, and may have been formed in a continental arc setting related to subduction of the Mianlue Ocean between the South Qinling Belt and the South China Block. Voluminous late-stage (225–185 Ma) magmatism evolved from early I-type to later I-A-type granitoids associated with contemporaneous lamprophyres, representative of a transition from syn- to post-collisional setting in response to the collision between the North China and the South China blocks. Late Mesozoic (158–100 Ma) granitoids, located in the southern margin of the North China Block and the eastern part of the North Qinling Belt, are characterized by I-type, I- to A-type, and A-type granitoids that were emplaced in a post-orogenic or intraplate setting. The first three of the four periods of magmatism were associated with three important orogenic processes and the last one with intracontinental process. These suggest that the tectonic evolution of the Qinling Orogen is very complicated.     

青藏高原南部拉萨地体的变质作用与动力学

拉萨地体位于欧亚板块的最南缘,它在新生代与印度大陆的碰撞形成了青藏高原和喜马拉雅造山带。因此,拉萨地体是揭示青藏高原形成与演化历史的关键之一。拉萨地体中的中、高级变质岩以前被认为是拉萨地体的前寒武纪变质基底。但新近的研究表明,拉萨地体经历了多期和不同类型的变质作用,包括在洋壳俯冲构造体制下发生的新元古代和晚古生代高压变质作用,在陆-陆碰撞环境下发生的早古生代和早中生代中压型变质作用,在洋中脊俯冲过程中发生的晚白垩纪高温/中压变质作用,以及在大陆俯冲带上盘加厚大陆地壳深部发生的两期新生代中压型变质作用。这些变质作用和伴生的岩浆作用表明,拉萨地体经历了从新元古代至新生代的复杂演化过程。(1)北拉萨地体的结晶基底包括新元古代的洋壳岩石,它们很可能是在Rodinia超大陆裂解过程中形成的莫桑比克洋的残余。(2)随着莫桑比克洋的俯冲和东、西冈瓦纳大陆的汇聚,拉萨地体洋壳基底经历了晚新元古代的(～650Ma)的高压变质作用和早古代的(～485Ma)中压型变质作用。这很可能表明北拉萨地体起源于东非造山带的北端。(3)在古特提斯洋向冈瓦纳大陆北缘的俯冲过程中,拉萨地体和羌塘地体经历了中古生代的(～360Ma)岩浆作用。(4)古特提斯洋盆的闭合和南、北拉萨地体的碰撞,导致了晚二叠纪(～260Ma)高压变质带和三叠纪(～220Ma)中压变质带的形成。(5)在新特提斯洋中脊向北的俯冲过程中,拉萨地体经历了晚白垩纪(～90Ma)安第斯型造山作用,形成了高温/中压型变质带和高温的紫苏花岗岩。(6)在早新生代(55～45Ma),印度与欧亚板块的碰撞,导致拉萨地体地壳加厚,形成了中压角闪岩相变质作用和同碰撞岩浆作用。(7)在晚始新世(40～30Ma),随着大陆的继续汇聚,南拉萨地体经历了另一期角闪岩相至麻粒岩相变质作用和深熔作用。拉萨地体的构造演化过程是研究汇聚板块边缘变质作用与动力学的最佳实例。     

Evolution of Cambrian and Early Ordovician arcs in the Kyrgyz North Tianshan: Insights from U-Pb zircon ages and geochemical data

Geochronological, geochemical, and structural studies of magmatic and metamorphic complexes within the Kyrgyz North Tianshan (NTS) revealed an extensive area of early Palaeozoic magmatism with an age range of 540–475 Ma. During the first episode at 540–510 Ma, magmatism likely occurred in an intraplate setting within the NTS microcontinent and in an oceanic arc setting within the Kyrgyz-Terskey zone in the south. During the second episode at 500–475 Ma, the entire NTS represented an arc system. These two phases of magmatism were separated by an episode of accretionary tectonics of uncertain nature, which led to obduction of ophiolites from the Kyrgyz-Terskey zone onto the microcontinent. The occurrence of zircon xenocrysts and predominantly negative whole-rock ɛ_Nd(t) values and ɛ_Hf(t) values of magmatic zircons suggest a continental setting and melting of Precambrian continental sources with minor contributions of Palaeozoic juvenile melts in the generation of the magmatic rocks. The late Cambrian to Early Ordovician 500–475 Ma arc evolved mainly on Mesoproterozoic continental crust in the north and partly on oceanic crust in the south. Arc magmatism was accompanied by spreading in a back-arc basin in the south, where supra-subduction ophiolitic gabbros yielded ages of 496 to 479 Ma. The relative position of the arc and active back-arc basin implies that the subduction zone was located north of the arc, dipping to the south. Variably intense metamorphism and deformation in the NTS reflect an Early Ordovician orogenic event at 480–475 Ma, resulting from closure of the Djalair-Naiman ophiolite trough and collision of the Djel'tau microcontinent with the northern margin of NTS. Comparison of geological patterns and episodes of arc magmatism in the NTS and Chinese Central Tianshan indicate that these crustal units constituted a single early Palaeozoic arc and were separated from the Tarim Craton by an oceanic basin since the Neoproterozoic.     

Metamorphic evolution of the Maud Belt: P–T–t path for high-grade gneisses in Gjelsvikfjella, Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica

A metamorphic petrological study, in conjunction with recent precise geochronometric data, revealed a complex P–T–t path for high-grade gneisses in a hitherto poorly understood sector of the Mesoproterozoic Maud Belt in East Antarctica. The Maud Belt is an extensive high-grade, polydeformed, metamorphic belt, which records two significant tectono-thermal episodes, once towards the end of the Mesoproterozoic and again towards the late Neoproterozoic/Cambrian. In contrast to previous models, most of the metamorphic mineral assemblages are related to a Pan-African tectono-thermal overprint, with only very few relics of late Mesoproterozoic granulite-facies mineral assemblages (M₁) left in strain-protected domains. Petrological and mineral chemical evidence indicates a clockwise P–T–t path for the Pan-African orogeny. Peak metamorphic (M_2b) conditions recorded by most rocks in the area (T = 709–785 °C and P = 7.0–9.5 kbar) during the Pan-African orogeny were attained subsequent to decompression from probably eclogite-facies metamorphic conditions (M_2a).The new data acquired in this study, together with recent geochronological and geochemical data, permit the development of a geodynamic model for the Maud Belt that involves volcanic arc formation during the late Mesoproterozoic followed by extension at 1100 Ma and subsequent high-grade tectono-thermal reworking once during continent–continent collision at the end of the Mesoproterozoic (M₁; 1090–1030 Ma) and again during the Pan-African orogeny (M_2a, M_2b) between 565 and 530 Ma. Post-peak metamorphic K-metasomatism under amphibolite-facies conditions (M_2c) followed and is ascribed to post-orogenic bimodal magmatism between 500 and 480 Ma.     

Humite- and scapolite-bearing assemblages in marbles and calcsilicates of Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica: new data for Gondwana reconstructions

This study investigates marbles and calcsilicates in Central Dronning Maud Land (CDML), East Antarctica. The paleogeographic positioning of CDML as part of Gondwana is still unclear; however, rock types, mineral assemblages, textures and P–T conditions observed in this study are remarkably similar to the Kerala Khondalite Belt in India. The CDML marbles and calcsilicates experienced a Pan-African granulite facies metamorphism at c. 570 Ma and an amphibolite facies retrogression at c. 520 Ma. The highest grade assemblage in marbles is forsterite+spinel+calcite+dolomite, in calcsilicates the assemblages are diopside+spinel, diopside+garnet, scapolite+wollastonite+clinopyroxene±quartz, scapolite±anorthite±calcite+clinopyroxene+wollastonite. These assemblages constrain the peak metamorphic conditions to 830±20 °C, 6.8±0.5 kbar and X _CO2>0.46. During retrogression, highly fluoric humite-group minerals (humite, clinohumite, chondrodite) replaced forsterite, and garnet rims formed at the expense of scapolite during reactions with wollastonite, calcite or clinopyroxene but without involvement of anorthite. Metamorphic conditions were about 650 °C, 4.5±0.7 kbar, 0.2< X _CO2^fluid<0.36, and the co-existence of garnet, clinopyroxene, wollastonite and quartz constrains f_O2 to FMQ-1.5 log units. Mineral textures indicate a very limited influx of H₂O-rich fluid during amphibolite facies retrogression and point to significant variations of fluid composition in mm-sized areas of the rock. Gypsum was observed in two samples; it probably replaced metamorphic anhydrite which appears to have formed under amphibolite facies conditions. The observed extensive anorogenic magmatism (anorthosites, A-type granitoids) and the character of metamorphism between 610 and 510 Ma suggest that the crustal thermal structure was characterized by a long-lived (50–100 Ma) rise of the crustal geotherm probably caused by magmatic underplating.     

Vestiges of the Mesoproterozoic Events in the Neoproterozoic Mozambique Belt: the East African Perspective in the Rodinia Puzzle

Most of the geological and palaeogeographical models consider the Neoproterozoic supercontinent Gondwana (∼650-550 Ma) as the direct offspring of the disintegrated Mesoproterozoic supercontinent Rodinia (∼1300-750 Ma). One of the main classical sutures along which the dispersing Rodinia fragments were fused into a new supercontinent (Godwana) is identified as the Mozambique belt of East Africa. The calc-alkaline magmatism (∼1200-950 Ma) in northern Mozambique, southern Malawi and southern Tanzania is regarded as the sole evidence for fragmentation of Rodinia, which is traced within this Neoproterozoic orogenic belt. There are no unequivocal Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran) sediments in this orogen. Concrete evidence for Kibaran metamorphism and deformation is missing. Thus, these solitary documented Kibaran magmatic vestiges in the belt do not ascribe to a true complete orogenesis, which involved the disintegration and dispersal of Rodinia. Consequently, the available sparse Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran) geological and isotopic data from the Mozambique belt of East Africa contentiously suggest its involvement in the aggregation of the supercontinent Rodinia at about 1300-1100 Ma ago.     

Subglacial imprints of early Gondwana break-up as identified from high resolution aerogeophysical data over western Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica

Determining the location and geometry of possible subglacial rifts in western Dronning Maud Land is a key element to address processes leading to early Gondwana break-up. However, previous geophysical investigations did not lead to unambiguous delineation of rift structures over this region. We interpret high-resolution airborne radar and aerogravity data to image subglacial rift structures. Subglacial topography, free-air and Bouguer gravity maps, coupled with 3D inverse gravity models, image a rift–rift–rift triple junction at the intersection of the Jutulstraumen ice stream and the Pencksökket glacier. These continental rifts were associated with alkaline and tholeiitic intrusions, minor dyke swarms and flood basalts of Jurassic age, but not with huge volumes of Karoo magmatism, such as that which characterizes the southern Africa conjugate margin. The western Dronning Maud Land triple junction may be linked to the Karoo mantle plume and represents an early stage of magmatism and rifting during Gondwana break-up.     

The Cryogenian arc formation and successive high-K calc–alkaline plutons of Socotra Island (Yemen)

The Socotra Island belongs to the southern rifted margin of the Gulf of Aden and occupied in Neoproterozoic times a key position to constrain the age and the nature of the largely hidden Neoproterozoic rocks of the Arabian plate. Our integrated field, petrographic, geochemical and geochronological study in the Neoproterozoic rocks recognises three main successive events: (a) high-temperature ductile deformation and metamorphism forming probably in a compressive or transpressive regime; (b) mafic to intermediate intrusions as vertical sheets, kilometre-scale gabbro laccoliths, mafic dike swarm and lavas which present mainly a depleted arc signature with some evidences of evolution from an enriched-arc signature; (c) felsic intrusions mainly composed of highly potassic calc–alkaline and pinkish granites dated between 840 and 780 Ma. Relationships between the various petrographic types and U–Pb data suggest that these events occurred during a relatively short time span (80 Ma at max). Earlier high-temperature–low-pressure metamorphism stage as well as geochemical signature of mafic rocks show that development of Cryogenian formations of Socotra were controlled successively by an Andean-arc and a back-arc setting. These features cannot be easily reconciled with those of the Arabian–Nubian shield to the west of Socotra and of the Mozambique Belt to the south. We propose that the Socotra basement was developed at an active margin close to the India block in Cryogenian times.