重庆市温塘峡背斜地热资源特征

温塘峡背斜是华蓥山帚状穹褶束中的背斜之一,地热水资源丰富,地热显示主要表现为天然温泉和人工温泉2类。通过统计和分析背斜两翼地热钻井的水量、水质和含水层资料,发现该构造主要热储含水层为嘉陵江组四段和二段,次要热储含水层为嘉陵江组三段和一段。水化学类型以硫酸盐型为主,但两翼有所不同,镁钙离子当量浓度比小于1,说明地热水化学成分主要来源于灰岩含水层。水质和水量受地质构造作用控制。温塘峡背斜具备热储盖层、热储层和下部热储隔热隔水层的层状热储结构特征,热储温度表现为西翼和东翼相当。物探测井数据显示,1 700~2 000 m深度处热储温度在26.42~51.7 ℃之间,且自北向南略有升高。研究成果可为温塘峡地热水资源进一步勘查开发提供参考和指导。     

云应盆地东北部含水层结构特征及地下水转化模式

云应盆地东北部属鄂北贫水地区,赋存于古近系—第四系含水层中的地下水是当地生产、生活用水的主要来源,亟需查明含水层的结构、含水层间地下水的转化关系等基本条件,为研究区内合理开发利用地下水提供依据。本研究通过野外水文地质调查、水文地质钻探工作,将研究区划分为单层含水层与双层含水层结构两个亚区（6个小区）。并通过地下水水位动态长期监测,获取了区内不同含水层的水位动态变化特征,分析各含水层之间的水力联系,建立了区域地下水转化的概念模式,即:研究区地下水以接受山前降雨入渗及风化裂隙水侧向径流补给为主,主要以水平径流的形式经古近系孔隙-裂隙含水层及第四系孔隙承压含水层往澴水方向运移,而后进入第四系孔隙潜水含水层。地下水和地表水在不同季节补排模式不同,雨季地表水（澴水）补给地下水,旱季地下水向地表水（澴水）排泄。古近系孔隙-裂隙水与上覆第四系孔隙水联系密切互为补给,共同构成具有统一水力联系的垂向多层结构的含水系统。独特的含水层结构决定了区内地下水接受降水补给的条件较差,地下水可开采资源量总体较贫乏,建议重点利用区域地表水资源,适度开发地下水资源,推进农业节水灌溉工程,实现水资源可持续利用。     

The effect of typical geological heterogeneities on the performance of managed aquifer recharge: physical experiments and numerical simulations

Understanding the role of geological heterogeneity on the performance of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) in terms of effective groundwater storage is crucial to design MAR systems. Natural aquifers are affected by a variety of geologic strata and structures at different scales, which are responsible for wide ranging hydraulic properties. This study combines physical experiments and numerical modeling to investigate the effect of geologic structures commonly encountered in sedimentary environments, on MAR-induced groundwater flow patterns using injection wells. Models were conceptualized and parametrized based on the hydrogeological conditions of Tailan River basin in arid NW China, which hosts a typical, structurally complex, alluvial-fan aquifer system affected by sediment layering, clay lenses and anticline barriers, and is extensively studied for the strategic potential of MAR in addressing water shortages in the region. Results showed that, compared to a homogeneous scenario, high-permeability aquifer layers shortened groundwater ages, decreased the thickness of the artificially recharged water lenses (ARWLs), and shifted the stagnation points downstream. Clay lenses increased groundwater residence times but had little effect on spatial flow patterns due to their elongation parallel-to-flow direction. Overall groundwater ages, as well as the thickness of ARWLs created through injection on the upstream side of an anticline, increased, and this to a larger extent than through injection on the downstream side, which did not increase significantly compared to the homogeneous scenario. Results provide insights for MAR optimization in naturally heterogeneous aquifer systems, along with a benchmark tool for application to a wide range of typical geological conditions.

     

The effects of geological heterogeneities and piezometric fluctuations on groundwater flow and chemistry in a hard-rock aquifer, southern India

Crystalline aquifers of semi-arid southern India represent a vital water resource for farming communities. A field study is described that characterizes the hydrodynamic functioning of intensively exploited crystalline aquifers at local scale based on detailed well monitoring during one hydrological year. The main results show large water-table fluctuations caused by monsoon recharge and pumping, high spatial variability in well discharges, and a decrease of well yields as the water table decreases. Groundwater chemistry is also spatially variable with the existence of aquifer compartments within which mixing occurs. The observed variability and compartmentalization is explained by geological heterogeneities which play a major role in controlling groundwater flow and connectivity in the aquifer. The position of the water table within the fracture network will determine the degree of connectivity between aquifer compartments and well discharge. The presented aquifer conceptual model suggests several consequences: (1) over-exploitation leads to a drop in well discharge, (2) intensive pumping may contribute to the hydraulic containment of contaminants, (3) groundwater quality is highly variable even at local scale, (4) geological discontinuities may be used to assist in the location of drinking-supply wells, (5) modeling should integrate threshold effects due to water-table fluctuations.     

A thirty-year artificial recharge experiment in a coastal aquifer in an arid zone: The Teboulba aquifer system (Tunisian Sahel)

With the increased demand for groundwater resulting from fast demographic growth, accelerated urbanization, economic and agricultural activity diversification, and the increase of per capita consumption, ground water resources, in particular in coastal regions, remain relatively low, compared to demand. The groundwater quality and piezometric variations result mainly from intensive exploitation, agricultural activities and the intrusion of seawater. This phenomenon is observed mostly in semi-arid areas, such as the oriental Sahel of Tunisia, where an apparent reduction in rainfall in recent years can be seen. Groundwater becomes overexploited especially as its natural recharge by rainwater does not succeed in maintaining the hydrologic balance. The imbalance between water demand and resources induces the degradation of the water quality. In such a case, the artificial recharge of water-table aquifers by water from dams is a credible alternative to improve the hydrodynamic and physicochemical conditions of the groundwater. Like most coastal aquifers, the Teboulba water-table aquifer is threatened by overexploitation for at least three decades. This threat appears by a considerable piezometric level drop and by water salinisation, due to seawater intrusion. Given this alarming situation, since 1971, artificial recharge through wells with surface water from a dam was tested in order to restore the water levels and to improve water quality. The piezometric and chemical surveys of the Teboulba aquifer permitted one to describe the temporal and spatial piezometric and geochemical conditions of the aquifer and to show the effect of the artificial recharge. Indeed, the artificial recharge undertaken since 1971 made the geochemical and piezometric conditions of the Teboulba aquifer improve. This example is a rare, well-documented case-study of the benefits of artificial recharge in a coastal aquifer, over the long term.     

Application of advanced borehole geophysical logging to managed aquifer recharge investigations

Communities and water utilities are increasingly being forced to implement more hydrogeologically complex alternative water supply and storage options to meet increasing freshwater demands. The performance of managed aquifer recharge projects, including aquifer storage and recovery, is controlled by the movement and mixing of stored freshwater and native groundwater, and fluid–rock interactions, which, in turn, are strongly influenced by aquifer heterogeneity. Advanced borehole geophysical logging techniques developed for the oil and gas industry such as neutron-gamma ray spectroscopy, microresistivity imaging, and nuclear magnetic resonance, can provide hitherto unavailable fine-scale data on porosity (total and effective), hydraulic conductivity, salinity, and the mineralogical composition of aquifers. Data on aquifer heterogeneity obtained from advanced borehole geophysics logs, combined with information on larger-scale aquifer hydraulics obtained from pumping tests, have the potential for improving aquifer characterization and modeling needed for feasibility assessments and the design and optimization of the operation of managed aquifer recharge systems.     

Key Groundwater Control Factors of Deep Buried Coalfield by Landform and Sedimentation in the Northern Ordos Basin

There were three landforms (i.e. desert, bedrock platform and loess gully) in deep-buried coalfield of northern Ordos Basin. Water inflow of working face in desert area was 1~2 orders of magnitude larger than that in other landform areas. In order to find out the key controlling factors of the directly water filled aquifers on the roof of the coal seam, we carried out research from the aspects of topography, landform and geological sedimentation. The results showed that desert landform provides abundant recharge water for underlying aquifers because of gentle topography, large precipitation infiltration coefficient, thick and water-rich quaternary system. While bedrock platform and loess gully landform were the water sources with weak recharge capacity of underlying aquifers. The sandstone-mudstone interbedding structure formed by continental deposits resulted in the absence of regional stable aquifers in Jurassic and Cretaceous strata on the roof of coal seams. Pumping tests of boreholes showed that all strata belong to weak to medium water-rich aquifers. The groundwater level of Cretaceous aquifer decreased by 20~130 m in three mines. There was a close hydraulic relationship between shallow and deep aquifers. The Mesozoic strata belonged to fluvial deposits. Qilizhen sandstone and Zhenwudong sandstone aquifers were mainly developed on the roof of the coal seam, which were characterized by thick medium-coarse sandstone sections. The geological and sedimentary conditions of direct water-filled aquifer were similar, but the amount of borehole water, cumulative pre-drainage water and water inflow from goaf in desert geomorphic area were much larger than those in bedrock platform and loess gully geomorphic area. The water-rich of the aquifer was mainly controlled by geomorphology, and the water sources of the deep aquifers were meteoric precipitation and Quaternary aquifer. In different mines with similar Quaternary conditions in Mu Us Desert, there were also great differences in the amount of borehole water, cumulative pre-drainage water and water inflow from goafs. The difference was related to the thickness and lithology of the aquifers. It reflected that the geological sedimentary conditions of the coal seam roof were also important factors to control the water-rich of the aquifers. Topography, landform and geological sedimentation were the key factors to control the water-rich of the aquifer directly and the water inflow from the working face.     

Recovery scenarios for deep over-exploited aquifers with limited recharge: methodology and application to an aquifer in Belgium

Recharge of deep-seated aquifers must be provided through leakage from overlying geological formations and can be very limited. Although hydraulic characteristics of these aquifers may be favorable for extensive exploitation, the renewability of the groundwater resource may be very restricted and only significant on long time scales. Over-exploitation of such aquifers leads to steadily declining piezometric levels and water balancing and steady state conditions are not to be expected on the short term. Recovery of such systems is very difficult, also because of the socio-economic dependencies of the water resource and the long time it requires to replenish the system. Management plans for restoration should be based on the transient hydrodynamical behaviour. A recovery plan should be developed based on results of a groundwater flow model. In a first step must be simulated how long it will take for the aquifer system to fully recover by natural recharge. As this will most often be a very long time it can be cancelled out as a realistic scenario. An alternative objective is to be formulated which could be achieved in the near future on a time scale of years or decades. Using model simulations, reduction schemes of exploitation rates shall be quantified that will allow to reach these defined goals, such as raising piezometric levels above the top of the aquifer itself or above the top of the overlying geological unit. The methodology is illustrated with an example of a deep hard rock aquifer in Belgium where piezometric levels have dropped below the top. The objective here was to raise the levels again above the top within the next 50 years. However, this is not accomplished by balancing aquifer recharge and discharge, but is reached by a lateral redistribution of the water over the aquifer extent. A full recovery of this aquifer would require at least a century with only a very limited amount of exploitation.     

Piezometric levels as possible indicator of aquifer structure: analysis of the data from Maknassy basin aquifer system (Central Tunisia)

The knowledge of piezometric data is of vast interest in many applications, such as assessing groundwater flow direction and identifying recharge zone of the aquifer. In this paper, a methodology is presented as a complementary approach to characterize multilayered aquifer system structure and functioning using piezometric data and the cartography of the hydraulic charge difference. The methodology is presented to gradually discriminate the aquifer system levels and to evaluate the spatial distribution of hydraulic heads. The hydraulic charge difference mapping permits to track spatial evolution of the impermeable levels. The methodology has been applied over the Maknassy basin aquifer system, located in central Tunisia. The obtained results, showing the multilayered aquifer structure, are validated using hydrochemical approach and piezometric data not considered in the reasoning.     

Relative importance and chemical effects of diffuse and focused recharge in an eogenetic karst aquifer: an example from the unconfined upper Floridan aquifer, USA

Karst aquifer studies often focus on allogenic water inputs and large conduit flow. However, diffuse recharge can be significant, particularly in unconfined eogenetic karst aquifers that retain high matrix permeability. This study examines an unconfined region of the upper Floridan aquifer (USA) that hosts a sinking stream, its resurgence, and a large conduit system. Daily diffuse recharge was approximated using a water-budget method and ranged from 17% of precipitation during a low precipitation year to >53% during the highest precipitation year, illustrating the highly variable nature of diffuse recharge in this region. The total allogenic input via the sinking stream over the 5 years of the study was significantly larger than the volume of diffuse recharge. However, only about 2% of the allogenic recharge flows from the conduit into the surrounding aquifer. That flow is restricted to storm events when hydraulic heads in the conduits exceed those in the surrounding aquifer. The estimated volume of dissolution is similar for allogenic recharge and diffuse recharge to the unconfined region surrounding the conduits, but dissolution from the diffuse recharge is distributed over a larger area than dissolution from allogenic recharge. These results exemplify how recharge type impacts flow and water–rock interactions in eogenetic karst aquifers.     

鄂尔多斯盆地北部深埋区“地貌—沉积”控水关键要素研究

鄂尔多斯盆地北部深埋煤田区地表主要有沙漠、基岩台地和黄土沟壑等地貌类型,沙漠区工作面涌水量比其他地貌区大1~2个数量级。为了查清煤层顶板直接充水含水层补给水源、导水通道和充水强度的控制要素,从地形地貌和地质沉积方面开展了研究,结果表明:沙漠地貌地势平缓,降水入渗系数大,第四系厚度大、富水性强,为下伏含水层提供了丰富的补给水源;基岩台地和黄土沟壑地貌,地形起伏大,降水入渗系数极小,浅部地层富水性极弱,是下伏含水层补给能力较弱的水源。陆相沉积形成的砂泥岩互层结构,不存在区域性稳定隔水层,各层段均属于弱-中等富水性含水层,3个矿井的白垩系含水层水位下降了20~130 m,证明浅部与深部含水层存在较密切的水力联系。煤层顶板主要发育七里镇砂岩和真武洞砂岩含水层,为厚度较大的中粗砂岩段,直接充水含水层地质沉积条件相似,但是沙漠区工作面顶板钻孔水量、累计预疏放水量和采空区涌水量均远大于其他地貌区,直接充水含水层富水性主要受地貌控制,深部含水层的水源为大气降水和第四系含水层。沙漠地貌区的不同矿井,工作面顶板钻孔水量、累计预疏放水量、采空区涌水量也存在较大差异,该差异与直接充水含水层厚度和岩性等有关,反映了地质沉积条件也是控制含水层富水性的重要因素。地形地貌和地质沉积是控制直接充水含水层富水性和工作面涌水量的关键要素。     

无越流补给含水层对煤层气排采影响的数值模拟

沁水盆地南部煤层气井具有“高产水、低产气”的特征,然而也有部分井存在“高产水、高产气”的现象。一般来说,煤层气井高产水,多与沟通含水层相关。针对这种情况,基于沁水盆地柿庄南区块煤储层地质条件,结合煤层气直井排采的实际情况,利用数值模拟方法,采用气水两相多组分的三维煤储层模拟软件(SIMEDWin)模拟煤层气井排采中,沟通无越流补给含水层对储层压力变化及煤层气水产出规律的影响。结果表明:与无含水层影响的煤层气井对比,沟通无越流补给含水层的煤层气井远井地带压降幅度显著,高产气时间久,累积产气量多,排水量大,但见气时间较晚;含水层渗透率越大,气井日产气峰值越高;气井日排水量越大,产气速度也会越快,但产气速度在排水量达到一定值时不再增大。综合考虑,沟通无越流补给高渗透率含水层,增大日排水量到一定值更有利于柿庄南区块煤层气的增产。      

Determining the role of lineaments in underground hydrodynamics using Landsat 7 ETM+ data,case of the Chott El Gharbi Basin (western Algeria)

This paper attempts an overview of the application of remote sensing to groundwater studies. Its objective is to define the role of the geological features in the underground hydrodynamic in the aquifer system of the Chott El Gharbi Basin (Algerian western high plains) and identify a link between the fracturing and the meteoric water supply of this deep aquifer. The methodology followed consists to study the fracturing map of studied area which is obtained after Landsat 7 ETM+ processing images. It is based on structural lineaments mapping. The obtained map has been validated by geophysical results and geological map. Statistical analysis of the lineaments network shows the presence of about 537 lineaments divided into four families oriented according to the following directions NE-SW, NW-SE, N-S, and E-W. The lineament analysis of the studied basin provides important information on subsurface fractures that may control the circulation and storage of groundwater. These fractures have an undeniable hydrogeological interest because of their size, a priori favorable for the aquifers recharge in the region. The probable link between the Chott El Gharbi implementation and the presence of mega fractures which some of them correspond actually to Wadis is confirmed. The correlation between the productivity of high debit drillings and the closest lineament confirms that these lineaments are surface traces of regional discontinuities and act as main groundwater flow paths.     

Spatial and temporal constraints on regional-scale groundwater flow in the Pampa del Tamarugal Basin,Atacama Desert,Chile

Aquifers within the Pampa del Tamarugal Basin (Atacama Desert, northern Chile) are the sole source of water for the coastal city of Iquique and the economically important mining industry. Despite this, the regional groundwater system remains poorly understood. Although it is widely accepted that aquifer recharge originates as precipitation in the Altiplano and Andean Cordillera to the east, there remains debate on whether recharge is driven primarily by near-surface groundwater flow in response to periodic flood events or by basal groundwater flux through deep-seated basin fractures. In addressing this debate, the present study quantifies spatial and temporal variability in regional-scale groundwater flow paths at 20.5°S latitude by combining a two-dimensional model of groundwater and heat flow with field observations and δ¹⁸O isotope values in surface water and groundwater. Results suggest that both previously proposed aquifer recharge mechanisms are likely influencing aquifers within the Pampa del Tamarugal Basin; however, each mechanism is operating on different spatial and temporal scales. Storm-driven flood events in the Altiplano readily transmit groundwater to the eastern Pampa del Tamarugal Basin through near-surface groundwater flow on short time scales, e.g., 10⁰–10¹ years, but these effects are likely isolated to aquifers in the eastern third of the basin. In addition, this study illustrates a physical mechanism for groundwater originating in the eastern highlands to recharge aquifers and salars in the western Pampa del Tamarugal Basin over timescales of 10⁴–10⁵ years.     

Improvement of groundwater resources potential by artificial recharge technique: A case study of Charf El Akab aquifer in the Tangier region,Morocco

In arid and semi-arid zones,water is the most vulnerable resource to climate change.In fact,various techniques such as artificial recharge are adopted to restore aquifers and to ensure aquifer sustainability in relation to the accelerated pace of exploitation.Morocco is a Mediterranean country highly vulnerable to climate change,many of its main aquifers are subjected to excessive drawdowns.This technique is practiced to increase potentiality of these aquifers.In the Northwestern area of Morocco,the significant development experienced by Tangier City in the industrial,tourism,and commercial sectors will lead to increased water requirements-up to 5 067 L/s(159.8 mm^3)by 2030.However,the Charf El Akab aquifer system,subject to artificial recharge,is the only groundwater resource of Tangier region;hence,a rational management context is needed to ensure aquifer sustainability,and optimized exploitation under the background of differing constraints,such as increased water requirements,and climate change impacts.This work aims to respond,for the first time,to the Charf El Akab aquifer overexploitation problem,and to evaluate the future scenarios of its exploitation in the event of failure of one of the superficial resources.This work also presents a synthesized hydrodynamic modeling based on the results of the numerical simulations carried out using Feflow software for 2004(date of cessation of injections)and 2011(date of resumption of these facilities),making it possible to evaluate the impact of the artificial recharge on the piezometric level of the aquifer on a spatiotemporal scale.Finally,the exploitation scenarios have shown that the aquifer of Charf El Akab will not adequatly provide for the region's water requirements on the future horizon,entailing an optimal management of water resources in the region and an intentionally increased recharge rate.     

黄陵背斜的构造几何形态及其成因探讨

黄陵背斜位于扬子克拉通的东缘,其核部出露的崆岭群被认为是扬予克拉通的基底岩石,并成为华南地质学研究的热点地区。从区域上看,黄陵背斜紧邻江汉盆地,东西两侧分别是荆当盆地与秭归盆地,黄陵背斜和周缘盆地构成明显的隆起—坳陷相互对应的构造。详细的野外观察和构造几何学的剖析表明,黄陵背斜的两翼西陡东缓,构成不对称背形的穹隆构造。在穹隆形成过程中,相应的岩石变形以顺层滑脱及相关的褶皱和小规模的逆冲断层为主,在早三叠世薄层灰岩、志留纪龙马溪组页岩、奥陶纪灰岩、寒武纪炭质灰岩以及震旦纪陡山沱组薄层灰岩广泛发育,并具有垂向缩短的重力滑脱特点,构造叠加关系指示了其形成于晚侏罗—早白垩纪之间。在构造变形分析的基础上,并深入探讨了黄陵背斜成因的3种可能的动力学背景。     

Improvement of groundwater resources potential by artificial recharge technique: A case study of Charf El Akab aquifer in the Tangier region,Morocco

In arid and semi-arid zones, water is the most vulnerable resource to climate change. In fact, various techniques such as artificial recharge are adopted to restore aquifers and to ensure aquifer sustainability in relation to the accelerated pace of exploitation. Morocco is a Mediterranean country highly vulnerable to climate change, many of its main aquifers are subjected to excessive drawdowns. This technique is practiced to increase potentiality of these aquifers. In the Northwestern area of Morocco, the significant development experienced by Tangier City in the industrial, tourism, and commercial sectors will lead to increased water requirements-up to 5 067 L/s (159.8 mm3) by 2030. However, the Charf El Akab aquifer system, subject to artificial recharge, is the only groundwater resource of Tangier region; hence, a rational management context is needed to ensure aquifer sustainability, and optimized exploitation under the background of differing constraints, such as increased water requirements, and climate change impacts. This work aims to respond, for the first time, to the Charf El Akab aquifer overexploitation problem, and to evaluate the future scenarios of its exploitation in the event of failure of one of the superficial resources. This work also presents a synthesized hydrodynamic modeling based on the results of the numerical simulations carried out using Feflow software for 2004 (date of cessation of injections) and 2011 (date of resumption of these facilities), making it possible to evaluate the impact of the artificial recharge on the piezometric level of the aquifer on a spatiotemporal scale. Finally, the exploitation scenarios have shown that the aquifer of Charf El Akab will not adequatly provide for the region's water requirements on the future horizon, entailing an optimal management of water resources in the region and an intentionally increased recharge rate.     

Temporal variation of chemical and isotopic signals in major discharges of an alpine karst aquifer in Turkey: implications with respect to response of karst aquifers to recharge

Proper management of karst aquifers requires a better understanding of flow and transport mechanisms in these systems. Flow in karst aquifers is inherently very complex due to the non-linear and non-stationary relationship between recharge and discharge. Information on this relationship has been acquired for a large (1,000 km²), mountainous (>3,500 m asl) karst aquifer with a deep unsaturated zone (>2,000 m) in the Aladaglar mountain range of south-central Turkey. All major discharges from the aquifer, which drain almost all the recharge, have been observed periodically for specific electrical conductivity, tritium and oxygen-18 variations during a period of 12 months. Observations reveal that the system’s response to recharge depends strongly on the competition between the infiltration and drainage velocities. These velocities, which are controlled by variables such as the time of precipitation, time of infiltration, intensity, and continuity of recharge, determine the degree of dominance of different types of flow mechanisms in the aquifer. Bypass, well-mixed and piston flow mechanisms are used to explain the response of the aquifer to the spatio-temporal variations in recharge. It appears that the aquifer switches among these flow mechanisms depending on the prevailing recharge mode and the competition between infiltration and drainage velocities.     

Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater quality assessment of the multilayered aquifer in Lower Kelantan Basin,Kelantan, Malaysia

Continual expansion of population density, urbanization, agriculture, and industry in most parts of the world has increased the generation of pollution, which contributes to the deterioration of surface water quality. This causes the dependence on groundwater sources for their daily needs to accumulate day by day, which raises concerns about their quality and hydrogeochemistry. This study was carried out to increase understanding of the geological setup and assess the groundwater hydrogeochemical characteristics of the multilayered aquifers in Lower Kelantan Basin. Based on lithological data correlation of exploration wells, the study area can be divided into three main aquifers: shallow, intermediate and deep aquifers. From these three aquifers, 101 groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for various parameters. The results showed that pH values in the shallow, intermediate and deep aquifers were generally acidic to slightly alkaline. The sequences of major cations and anions were Na⁺ > Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺ > K⁺ and HCO₃^? > Cl^? > SO₄^2? > CO₃^2?, respectively. In the intermediate aquifer, the influence of ancient seawater was the primary factor that contributed to the elevated values of electrical conductivity (EC), Cl^? and total dissolved solids (TDS). The main facies in the shallow aquifer were Ca–HCO₃ and Na–HCO₃ water types. The water types were dominated by Na–Cl and Na–HCO₃ in the intermediate aquifer and by Na–HCO₃ in the deep aquifer. The Gibbs diagram reveals that the majority of groundwater samples belonged to the deep aquifer and fell in the rock dominance zone. Shallow aquifer samples mostly fell in the rainfall zone, suggesting that this aquifer is affected by anthropogenic activities. In contrast, the results suggest that the deep aquifer is heavily influenced by natural processes.