Differentiating Between Subsystems and Typologies in the Analysis of Migration Regions: A U.S. Example*

Studies of migration regions are characterized by two separate conceptual approaches. The first views migration regions as clusters of highly interconnected spatial units (subsystems) while the other defines them as groups of spatial units with a similar geographic structure of flows (typologies). This paper highlights the theoretical and methodological distinctions between migration subsystems and typologies. An empirical analysis using U.S. migration data for 1940, 1960, and 1980 shows that although migration subsystems and typologies have both changed over time, each reveals a different dynamic of regional change and has different morphological characteristics.     

The Hilliness of U.S. Cities

What is a hilly city, and which cities are hilliest? This study outlines a basket of methods for quantifying the differential hilliness of U.S. cities. We rank the 100 largest cities in the contiguous United States, using a selection of eight methods to evaluate their comparative hilliness. We then reflect on how four key “modes of encounter” with terrain shape human perceptions of urban hilliness: visual, pedestrian, automotive, and imagined/conceptual. Varying priorities among these different modes of encounter shape which of our indices may best correlate with lay understandings of urban hilliness or particular policy problems. We conclude with implications of this work for contemporary geographic scholarship and suggestions for further research, particularly with regard to the political and economic effects of hilliness.     

前苏联铁路网的形成、发展和布局

前苏联是世界上铁路运输利用率最高的国家。本文从其铁路发展的背景条件出发，分析了铁路成为前苏联最主要运输方式的原因，并进一步探讨了前苏联铁路网的建设、发展和分布特点，对我国正在进行的大规模铁路建设有一定借鉴意义。     

Ebbs and Flows in Recent U.S. Interstate Migration*

Interstate migration exchanges in the United States are temporally and spatially transitory. Both the early and mid-1980s exhibited significant fluctuations in the origins and destinations of U.S. migrants, while the late 1980s and early 1990s were even more unstable. Regions once favored by interstate movers such as the West and the South, while remaining attractive, showed evidence of declining favor in the early 1990s. Meanwhile, numerous states in the national interior regained their attractiveness, including several that gained net migrants for the first time in decades. California exhibited a major turnaround in its migration, perturbing the entire U.S. migration system.     

Economic Freedom,Migration, and Income Change in the United States: 1995 to 2010

Migration is primarily motivated by economic reasons, but people also move for a variety of other purposes, including a desire for political and economic freedom. Although freedoms are often thought of as dominant reasons for international migration in political states with federal systems of governments, migration across internal political borders also takes place to take advantage of local differences in political and economic regulations, taxes, and public goods. Using the combined Internal Revenue Service/Census Bureau state-to-state migration data for 1995 to 2010, we examine the relationship between economic freedom and migration and its impact on state-level income change. We find that economic freedom is positively associated with income change due to net migration but not associated with gains or losses from income differences between in- and outmigrants. In general, states with higher or lower levels of economic freedom gained or lost income due to migration.     

The Location of Creativity and U.S. Companies in Germany

This article analyzes how far U.S. companies locate subsidiaries in need of highly skilled staff in state locations in Germany that have a high ranking of creativity. Such locations should provide an especially attractive location for certain “creative” staff, which should be of special interest to U.S. companies in need of highly skilled staff. Analyzing U.S. companies that were established since the year 2000 and with more than fifty staff, we find support for our propositions that nonmanufacturing and organizationally higher rank subsidiaries with a need for urban infrastructure and connectedness are located in creative states in Germany.     

美国外资R&D的空间集聚特征

本文考察美国境内的715家外资R＆D机构的空间分布和集聚现象,发现美国的外资R＆D机构高度集中在三类地区;一是以硅谷和研究三角园区为代表的科技园区,二是纽约等经济中心城市,三是以底特律为代表的专业化工业城市。不同地区的外资R＆D机构的行业结构与当地的优势行业完全一致,如硅谷的外资R＆D机构主要是从事计算机技术的研发,底特律的外资R＆D全部是从事汽车工业或与之有关技术的研发,纽约、洛杉矶和芝加哥的外资R&D机构所从事的行业则呈现与各城市优势行业一致的多样性。     

In the Critical Zone: Geography at the U.S. Geological Survey

Geography is again becoming an integral part of the premier natural‐science agency of the federal government. Geographic research emphasizes the surface of the earth, a portion of the earth system that the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) defines as the “critical zone.” Although geography was part of the USGS from the creation of the agency, in recent years geography in the agency has largely been limited to topographic mapping. Recently, the USGS and an advisory committee of the National Research Council (NRC) reviewed the role of geography at the Survey. The committee's report, along with ongoing decision‐making in the federal government, is likely to reshape geography in the USGS. The newly defined USGS has a regional structure and four disciplines: geology, hydrology, biology, and geography. The NRC report emphasizes the need for the creation of a spatial database called the National Map to replace the existing series of paper topographic maps. The report also outlines the need for geographic research in geographic information science (GIScience), nature‐society connections, and bridging of science to decision‐making. The NRC report has been briefed throughout the USGS, in the federal executive branch, and in Congress. The changing role for geography in the USGS requires change in the agency culture, revised budgetary decisions, and the establishment of a long‐term core agenda for research. Academic geographers will need to prepare a new generation of geographers for participation in the USGS and similar agencies.     

美国海岸带综合管理及其对我国的借鉴意义

1972年美国颁布了世界上第一部综合性的海岸带管理法规－《海岸带管理法》，标志着现代海岸带综合管理的开端，在回顾美国海岸带综合管理发展的基础上，从海岸带管理立法与政策、管理形式、体制和公众参与等4个方面概括了美国海岸带综合管理的主要特点，最后，针对我国在进行海岸带综合管理试验中面临的问题，提出了若干建议。     

美国本土的外国投资与投资环境的地区差异

本文论述了美国的外国直接投资额、外国直接投资密度和外国直接投资年增长率的地区差异，并用这三个数量指标来综合评价各州投资环境的优劣，按综合得分值的高低将美国本土划分为四类区域：Ⅰ类投资环境区、Ⅱ类投资环境区、Ⅲ类投资环境和Ⅳ类投资环境区。     

美国铁路网的形成、分布和改造

本文分析了美国铁路网迅速形成和急剧缩减的原因，指出其非均衡分布的特点，介绍其远景改造设想，对我国铁路网的建设有一定的参考价值。     

Spatial Patterns of Migration and Income Change in the Mountain West: The Dominance of Service-Based,Amenity-Rich Counties

One of the most recognizable and important changes occurring in the West is rapid population growth. This article intends to address questions associated with whether patterns of population growth and income migration are associated with “new” and “old” West economies. Rural restructuring in the U.S. has created a group of counties with service-based economies. In the Mountain West, a number of counties with service-based economies are located in areas with high levels of environmental or natural amenities, creating what has been termed the “New West.” Migration to the rural parts of the Mountain West, and the income transfers associated with migration, are increasingly concentrated within these New West counties. Rapid population growth, the changing characteristics of in-migrants, and their spatial concentration in New West counties provide a basis for conflicts over what the rural West is becoming.     

Organization‐Led Migration,Individual Choice,and Refugee Resettlement in The U.S.: Seeking Regularities

The role of organizations in migration has received less attention than warranted; individual choice has typically been emphasized. As an in‐depth illustration, we consider refugee resettlement in the United States, post–World War II, wherein intermediary organizations play(ed) a major role. Central to this system are voluntary agencies (VOLAGs) and community organizations, but secondary migration also is critical. Attention is given to all refugees between 2000 and 2010, and in greater detail to Somalis. The latter provides deeper understanding through state refugee coordinators and case studies of Columbus, Ohio, Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Lewiston, Maine. Aside from process, it is evident that the geography of the foreign‐born settlement has been altered. While refugee resettlement and subsequent migration is the example, we broaden that to argue that migration studies have neglected the derived nature of movement via intermediary organizations; directed migrations and/or similar interventions have played a significant, if not dominant, role in population redistribution; and organization‐led migration should be considered in terms of general aspects, not simply as discrete case studies.     

Employer Recruitment and Hispanic Labor Migration: North Carolina Urban Areas at the End of the Millennium

The North Carolina Hispanic population has grown at a rapid pace in recent years. Before 1980, the majority of Hispanics in North Carolina were engaged primarily in migrant agricultural work. Hispanics who are part of the new influx are arriving in urban areas and are working at nonagricultural pursuits. Previous research and anecdotal evidence suggest that Hispanic newcomers come from other U.S. jurisdictions and from abroad. Labor migration occurs in response to demand for labor, and labor demand is meditated by employers’ preferences and hiring practices. However, focusing solely on employer demand for labor ignores the role of past U.S. immigration policy and the large growth in services employment in the Sunbelt that have fueled the Hispanic in–migration. This research project explored the attitudes and recruiting behavior of employers in the Triangle region of North Carolina. A newspaper content analysis was undertaken, and interviews were conducted with selected intermediaries and a group of employers. Qualitative analysis of the data collected revealed that these employers utilize the social networks of their immigrant Hispanic employees to recruit new workers. They also use a variety of other recruiting methods to recruit Hispanics both locally and from abroad. If this practice is widespread, it may be fueling the influx of Hispanic immigrants to North Carolina. Employers interviewed extolled the work ethic of Hispanic workers and often bypassed native–born workers, whom they felt were inferior employees. These findings have ramifications for future immigration policy and for the success of welfare–to–work programs. Employer demand for labor is one factor that must be considered when formulating new immigration policy.     

美国对外直接投资的经验及其对中国企业跨国经营的启示

本文论述了美国对外直接投资产业结构变化与国内经济变化的互动关系、对外直接投资的产业选择和区域战略的演变及现状特点，并针对我国企业跨国经营的现状提出了立足亚太、放眼世界；兼顾资源导向和市场导向的对外投资战略。     

20世纪90年代中国城市效率的时空变化

尝试采用DEA测评中国202个地级及其以上城市的效率,进而探索中国城市效率在1990~2000年间的时空变化,结果发现：目前中国城市效率较低,而且呈现与三大地带经济发展格局和城市行政等级相一致的空间格局。另外,进一步把城市效率分解为规模效率、利用效率和纯技术效率,发现中国城市的利用效率和纯技术效率普遍较高,但规模效率是影响中国城市效率空间格局和时空变化的主要因素;正是由于规模效率在1990~2000年的下降抵消了利用效率、纯技术效率上升所带来的影响,造成目前中国城市效率普遍较低。因此,从规模效率的角度看中国城市目前还具有很大的发展潜力。     

Spatio-temporal changes in heat waves and cold spells: an analysis of 55 U.S. cities

With observed increases in global temperatures indicating changes to anomalous temperature events (ATE), few studies have considered the changes associated with both heat and cold together. This study evaluates the changes in heat waves and cold spells for 55 U.S. metropolitan areas (1948–2012). Using surface observations, thresholds of mean apparent temperature were used to define heat, extreme heat, cold, and extreme cold events. Days that exceeded the 95th temperature percentile were considered heat days. Similar values were used to define extreme heat (97.5th), cold (5th), and extreme cold (2.5th). Thresholds were calculated independently for each of the locations, incorporating spatial variability into the ATE definition. Changes in duration, seasonal timing, and frequency, all of which have been shown to be important characteristics in regard to heat and cold events, were evaluated. Significant changes in some characteristics were found. Across many locations, heat events have become more frequent, longer lasting, and earlier occurring, while cold spells have experienced an opposite trend. Since heat and cold events impact a range of ecological and bioclimatological processes, understanding the variability and changes associated with ATE remains an important aspect to consider as society prepares for future events.     

An All-Season Synoptic Climatology of Air Pollution in the U.S.-Mexico Border Region*

The potential exists for widespread air quality problems in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands. Climate and weather are major factors governing the behavior of air pollution, and thus there is a need for greater understanding of border-region air pollution climatology. This paper presents a synoptic climatology of the 850 mb atmospheric circulation for the U.S.-Mexico border region, and an accompanying analysis of relationships between synoptic conditions and ground-level ozone. The synoptic methodology employs high-pass filtering to enable comparisons of all seasons, and it uses modified multiple k means clustering to identify six characteristic circulation patterns. The climatology succinctly summarizes important spatial and temporal complexities of border region circulation, including various pressure configurations, the seasonality of those patterns, and associated weather conditions across the region. These results are linked with ozone data for four border-region cities, and the subsequent findings highlight systematic seasonal and region-wide variations in ozone pollution corresponding to patterns of controlling climatic factors. Three high-ozone scenarios are identified, each of which selectively affects a different area or time of year.     

Migration,Sources of Income,and Community Change in the Nonmetropolitan Northwest

During the late 1980s and the first half of the 1990s, the nonmetropolitan Northwest grew quite rapidly, narrowing the gap between the growth rates of the metropolitan Northwest, and oupacing national rates. This growth was largely the result of in-migration from regional and national metropolitan areas. Traditional economic base theory does not explain the recent growth, as employment levels in in the region's basic industries continue to stagnate and decline, and the sources of income for these in-migrants remain a mystery. This paper utilizes data from the 1990 Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) to determine the extent to which metropolitan-origin migrants are measurably different from oldtime nonmetropolitan residents on certain socioeconomic variables, in an attempt to understand the ways in which the newcomers survive financially. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) shows that newcomers are younger, earn less in wages and salary, receive more nonearnings income, and reside in more valuable housing compared with the resident population. Discriminant analysis shows that differences in the earned income measures are largely explained by age differences, while the nonearnings income and value of residence remainsignificantly higher for the metropolitan origin migrants even when age and earned income are controlled. While the analysis indicates that measurable socioeconomic differences do exist between the two populations, it appears that the current wave of growth and change in the nonmetropolitan Northwest is much more complicated than a simple newcomer-oldtimer dichotomy.     

美国国家公园志愿者服务及机制——以海峡群岛国家公园为例

具有百余年历史的美国国家公园志愿者服务已成为美国国家公园管理的重要部分,志愿者服务有效实现了美国国家公园的全民管理思路。通过实地考察和访谈记录梳理,就国家公园志愿者服务的相关概念、服务动机、服务决策、服务内容、服务支持和服务机制深入剖析,从庞大有序的服务系统、管理与运行、功能实现三方面分析国家公园志愿者服务机制;提炼出美国国家公园志愿者服务的四个支持：宣传支持、技术支持、学习支持和立法支持。并以美国海峡群岛国家公园为例进行论证。最后提出国家公园志愿者服务和中国国家公园志愿服务尚需研究的诸多内容,任重而道远。