The use of diatom records to establish reference conditions for UK lakes subject to eutrophication

A knowledge of pre-disturbance conditions is important for setting realistic restoration targets for lakes. For European waters this is now a requirement of the European Council Water Framework Directive where ecological status must be assessed based on the degree to which present day conditions deviate from reference conditions. Here, we employ palaeolimnological techniques, principally inferences of total phosphorus from diatom assemblages (DI-TP) and classification of diatom composition data from the time slice in sediment cores dated to ~1850 AD, to define chemical and ecological reference conditions, respectively, for a range of UK lake types. The DI-TP results from 169 sites indicate that reference TP values for low alkalinity lakes are typically <10 μg L⁻¹ and in many cases <5 μg L⁻¹, whilst those for medium and high alkalinity lakes are in the range 10–30 and 20–40 μg L⁻¹, respectively. Within the latter two alkalinity types, the deeper waters (>3 m mean depth) generally had lower reference TP concentrations than the shallow sites. A small group of shallow marl lakes had concentrations of ~30 μg L⁻¹. Cluster analysis of diatom composition data from 106 lakes where the key pressure of interest was eutrophication identified three clusters, each associated with particular lake types, suggesting that the typology has ecological relevance, although poor cross matching of the diatom groups and the lake typology at type boundaries highlights the value of a site-specific approach to defining reference conditions. Finally the floristic difference between the reference and present day (surface sample) diatom assemblages of each site was estimated using the squared chord distance dissimilarity coefficient. Only 25 of the 106 lakes experienced insignificant change and the findings indicate that eutrophication has impacted all lake types with >50% of sites exhibiting significant floristic change. The study illustrates the role of the sediment record in determining both chemical and ecological reference conditions, and assessing deviation from the latter. Whilst restoration targets may require modification in the future to account for climate induced alterations, the long temporal perspective offered by palaeolimnology ensures that such changes are assessed against a sound baseline.     

Palaeolimnology and its developing role in assessing the history and extent of human impact on lake ecosystems

This Special Issue was produced as an output from the EU Integrated Project Euro-limpacs which aimed to evaluate the impacts of global change on European freshwater ecosystems using a combination of approaches, including monitoring, experiments, modelling and palaeolimnology. The papers focus on the last of these approaches. They examine the role of lake sediment records in determining reference conditions for a range of environmental pressures including acidification, eutrophication, metal pollution, organic carbon and sediment accumulation rates. The findings are especially relevant to the European Union’s Water Framework Directive which requires an assessment of lake ecological status based on deviation from reference conditions. The contributions consider a range of issues relating to the use of palaeolimnological data in defining reference conditions and lake status including human versus natural variability, concepts of pristine and reference conditions, shifting baselines, and quantification of degree of change. This introductory paper sets the context for the volume by briefly describing how palaeolimnology has evolved as a science, able now to contribute uniquely to the understanding of lake ecosystem change, especially with respect to the role of human activity over recent decades and centuries.     

生态恢复下湿地土壤微生物研究进展

随着社会经济的发展,湿地破坏日趋严重,退化湿地生态恢复成为当前科学研究的热点。土壤微生物在调控湿地生物地球化学过程和维持生态系统功能等方面均起着十分重要的作用。探讨湿地土壤微生物在生态恢复下变化及响应机制,有利于认识湿地生态系统恢复过程。通过对湿地生态恢复下土壤微生物群落结构、土壤微生物量、土壤酶活性和微生物降解功能等几个方面进行研究综述,提出了当前利用土壤微生物在恢复湿地方面存在的问题,并对湿地生态恢复后土壤微生物的进一步研究提出几个需要注意的方面,对今后土壤微生物湿地修复方面的研究具有一定的参考价值。     

蒙古国植被自然恢复潜力

植被自然恢复能力评估是生态恢复实践的重要内容。基于蒙古国的MODIS EVI植被指数产品、气象数据及土壤数据,依据相似生境原则,构建了植被恢复潜力计算模式,计算得到蒙古国植被恢复潜力值（VRP,可代表在自然条件下区域植被能够恢复到的最佳状况）及植被恢复潜力指数（VRPI,代表植被生长现状与最大潜力之间的差距）,并用蒙古国纵贯铁路沿线长期围封区的采样分析数据进行了验证。结果表明：（1）蒙古国整体上具有较高的植被恢复潜力,植被自然恢复潜力值0.6—0.9;（2）受降水、气温、土壤等自然要素组配的空间分异影响,蒙古国植被自然恢复潜力具有较大的空间差异性,其中北部及东部地区为VRP高值区和VRPI低值区,植被轻度退化,且较容易恢复;南部及西部地区为VRP中低值区和VRPI高值区,植被退化程度较重,恢复难度相对较大。     

Challenges in using siliceous subfossils as a tool for inferring past water level and hydroperiod in Everglades marshes

Successfully rehabilitating drained wetlands through hydrologic restoration is dependent on defining restoration targets, a process that is informed by pre-drainage conditions, as well as understanding linkages between hydrology and ecosystem structure. Paleoecological records can inform restoration goals by revealing long-term patterns of change, but are dependent on preservation of biomarkers that provide meaningful interpretations of environmental change. In the Florida Everglades, paleohydrological hind-casting could improve restoration forecasting, but frequent drying of marsh soils leads to poor preservation of many biomarkers. To determine the effectiveness of employing siliceous subfossils in paleohydrological reconstructions, we examined diatoms, plant and sponge silico-sclerids from three soil cores in the central Everglades marshes. Subfossil quality varied among cores, but the abundance of recognizable specimens was sufficient to infer 1,000–3,000 years of hydrologic change at decadal to centennial resolution. Phytolith morphotypes were linked to key marsh plant species to indirectly measure fluctuations in water depth. A modern dataset was used to derive diatom-based inferences of water depth and hydroperiod (R² = 0.63, 0.47; RMSE = 14 cm, 120 days, respectively). Changes in subfossil quality and abundances at centennial time-scales were associated with mid-Holocene climate events including the Little Ice Age and Medieval Warm Period, while decadal-scale fluctuations in assemblage structure during the twentieth century suggested co-regulation of hydrology by cyclical climate drivers (particularly the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation) and water management changes. The successful reconstructions based on siliceous subfossils shown here at a coarse temporal scale (i.e., decadal to centennial) advocate for their application in more highly resolved (i.e., subdecadal) records, which should improve the ability of water managers to target the quantity and variability of water flows appropriate for hydrologic restoration.     

基于多时相CBERS/CCD数据的塔里木河下游植被变化

自2000年实施生态输水以后,塔里木河下游断流区沿岸自然植被得到了不同程度的恢复。根据逐年中等分辨率遥感数据,利用时间轨迹分析方法,对植被变化的过程和趋势进行分析。选择2000-2005年各年的最佳CBERS/CCD图像,根据土壤调整植被指数值,将各年土地覆被分为植被和非植被;基于分类结果逐像元构建土地覆被变化轨迹;并按照过程和趋势特征将变化轨迹划分为恒定非植被、恒定植被、转变为植被、转变为非植被和非稳定变化5种变化类型。通过分析植被面积变化与生态输水之间的关系、以及不同趋势类型的数量、空间特征,并结合输水资料和地面调查结果,了解各种变化趋势的变化过程、植被结构和变化原因。结果表明:植被面积随生态输水的进行呈逐年增加趋势;输水过程中,7.94%的区域呈现转变为植被的趋势,主要是草本植物恢复和灌木丛的复苏所致;同时仅有2.66%的像元转变为非植被;由于生态脆弱性较高,尚有10.43%的像元表现为非稳定变化。变化轨迹所揭示的过程特征显示,由非植被向植被转变的变化主要出现在2003年最大规模输水以后;在河水漫溢区尤为明显。实践还表明,干旱区植被变化波动频繁,时间轨迹分析方法有利于揭示植被的变化过程和趋势;而CBERS/CCD数据的免费使用,为利用中等空间分辨率遥感数据进行时间轨迹分析节约了成本。     

A reference typology of low alkalinity lakes in the UK based on pre-acidification diatom assemblages from lake sediment cores

This paper has two aims: (1) to show for the first time how a natural typology can be established using palaeoecological methods; and (2) to show how it can be used in lake restoration studies with respect to the definition of recovery targets for acidified lakes. By defining the characteristic reference assemblages for low alkalinity site types rather than for a specific site it allows success to be measured more broadly, unconstrained by the specific composition of the pre-acidification flora. We analyse statistically the pre-acidification diatom assemblages of sediment cores from 121 low alkalinity lakes in the UK in order to assess whether a reference typology for such lakes can be defined on the basis of their diatom floras. We use samples dating to ~1850 AD to represent pre-acidification conditions. The results show that three main clusters can be identified, two dominated by benthic taxa (Clusters 1 and 3) and one dominated by planktonic taxa (Cluster 2). Cluster 1 is characterised by taxa such as Brachysira vitrea, Cymbella microcephala and Fragilaria spp., Cluster 2 by Cyclotella comensis, C. radiosa, Asterionella formosa, Aulacoseira subarctica and Achnanthes minutissima and Cluster 3 by Eunotia incisa, Frustulia rhomboides var. saxonica, Fragilaria virescens var. exigua, and Cymbella perpusilla. Although environmental data for 1850 AD are not available it is apparent from the contemporary distribution of the taxa in the different clusters that Cluster 2 represents the most alkaline pre-acidification conditions. Some sites in this cluster have been acidified, but some, especially the larger, deeper lakes have been enriched. Cluster 1 includes sites that contain diatoms with relatively high pH optima (pH 6.4–7.4) whereas Cluster 3 sites contain diatoms with the lowest pre-acidification pH conditions in the data-set. Sites in this cluster also have the lowest base cation concentrations at the present day and include the sites in the UK that have been most affected by acid deposition.     

Thresholds in small rivers? Hypotheses developed from fluvial morphological research in western Germany

The objective of this study was the formulation of fluvial morphological regularities for small rivers with a wide range of morphological and geological characteristics in North-Rhine-Westphalia (Germany) based on a statistical research methodology. Such empirical quantitative information on reference conditions is required for the restoration of small rivers in the former highly industrialised Ruhr-Area. Following the approach of some classic empirical works in fluvial morphology of the last century, several natural reference rivers in the entire research area have been observed in order to provide a statistical correlation between independent and dependent morphological variables. Regressions between valley-floor slope, bankfull discharge and stream power on the one hand and several variables describing the longitudinal profile and river planform on the other hand have shown some significant results. The regularities found are a quantitative contribution to the establishment of reference conditions as well as a useful tool for the restoration of small rivers, if the specific properties and values of the underlying random sampling are taken into account. In addition, the relation between stream power and sinuosity shows the likely existence of a threshold: Exceeding a stream power of 100 W/m, the sinuosity decreases after an increase for lower stream power values. Comparable thresholds were found for the relation between stream power and pool depth as well as stream power and step steepness. The thresholds could be explained by a change in the type of energy dissipation, due to different physio-geographical settings in highland rivers within forested v-shaped valleys. Here, large-woody debris seems to increase the channel roughness and possibly replaces the significance of coarse-grained bed material, pool depth and step steepness as contributors to energy dissipation.     

额济纳三角洲近15年土地利用分形特征及变化

分形理论在土地利用变化领域有着广阔的应用前景。通过论述土地利用斑块分维数、稳定性指数的计算方法及代表意义。而后,借助遥感和地理信息系统空间技术,以额济纳三角洲为例,计算了沙漠化地区土地利用斑块的分维数和稳定性指数,分析了它们的变化特征及其所隐含的地理学意义,为区域生态环境保护和可持续利用提供决策依据。     

气候变化对地缘政治格局的影响路径与效应

以2009 年哥本哈根联合国气候变化大会为标志,气候变化正在以前所未有的力度塑造未来地缘政治的新格局。气候变化问题已经不再是纯粹的环境问题,而是成为国际关系中的焦点问题。在气候变化的驱动下,地缘政治格局的演变出现了新的变化:① 地缘政治争夺向新的领域和地域拓展;② 地缘政治争夺工具和手段的更新;③ 地缘政治博弈主体出现新的分化与重组。随着气候变化问题政治化的不断发展,气候变化已经成为影响地缘政治格局演变的重要驱动因子之一。气候变化导致地缘政治争夺的手段、范围和内容都有了改变,碳排放空间,新能源技术等成为地缘政治争夺的重点。气候变化主要通过“回溯作用”、“反馈作用”和“波及作用”3 条主要路径对地缘政治格局的演变产生作用,其对地缘政治格局的影响是借助“溯源效应”、“抑制效应”和“扩散效应”三种方式发挥影响力。本文的基本结论是:① 气候变化逐渐成为影响当今世界地缘政治格局演变最活跃的驱动因子之一,并使地缘政治争夺的目标和手段趋于多元化;② 气候变化催生了新的地缘政治工具,发达国家借助气候变化这个杠杆,撬动能源、粮食等战略资源,手段更加隐蔽;③ 以新能源为核心的低碳技术成为地缘政治影响力和权力转移的关键因素,谁能在新能源技术领域占据优势,谁就能在未来的气候变化谈判和地缘政治竞争中具有主导地位。     

Comparing pre-industrial and post-limed diatom communities in Swedish lakes,with implications for defining realistic management targets

In the 1960s and 1970s, acidification was identified as a major environmental problem in Scandinavia, Great Britain and North America. In Sweden, a liming program was launched in order to counteract the effects of acidification on surface waters. More than 30 years after large-scale liming began, there is still debate about whether liming actually achieves its goals, i.e., to prevent acidification in acid-sensitive surface waters and to restore natural conditions in acidified waters. We used Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) and analogue matching of diatom assemblages in surface sediment samples (recent conditions) from 31 limed lakes and pre-industrial samples from 291 reference lakes to help answer the question as to whether the Swedish liming program achieves its goals. Diatoms are important primary producers in lakes and established indicator organisms for lake-water quality. First we compared pre-industrial with post-limed diatom communities to address the question whether liming causes unnatural conditions, i.e., diatom communities that have not previously occurred in Swedish lakes. Second, we addressed the issue of what is a realistic condition to use as a reference (natural condition) or a target in management programs. We found that the diatom communities in limed lakes were not different from the communities in the reference lakes. Most of the limed lakes had one or more analogues within the reference data set and many of them had at least one within-lake analogue. Hence, liming does not create unique diatom communities in lakes. Based on this and previous paleolimnological studies in Swedish lakes we suggest a conceptual model integrating the natural lake condition, the historical human impact, and the recent and contemporary human impact, when defining realistic targets in management programs.     

Assessing aquatic macrophyte community change through the integration of palaeolimnological and historical data at Loch Leven,Scotland

Submerged macrophytes have a critical role in lake ecosystems affecting nutrient cycling, sediment stability, and community composition across multiple trophic levels. Consequently temporal changes in the composition of submerged plant populations can have profound ecological implications and key significance from the perspective of lake conservation. By focusing on macro-remains of aquatic macrophytes and extensive historical plant records spanning the last approximately 180 years, this study seeks to evaluate a combined historical-palaeolimnological approach for establishing pre-disturbance macrophytes communities in Loch Leven, Kinross, Scotland and to provide new information regarding temporal trends in its macrophyte vegetation as well as potential drivers of change. Some 81% of the species historically recorded for the core site (east side of St. Serf’s Island) were found as macro-remains. Potamogeton taxa were underrepresented, whereas remains of Elatine hexandra, a small species never recorded historically were found. The core sequence showed good agreement with known floristic changes including an early (pre- ca. 1850) loss of Isoetes lacustris and Lobelia dortmanna and a more recent (post-1910) shift to dominance by Potamogeton and Chara taxa associated with eutrophic conditions. A clear pattern in the relationship between macrofossil principal component analysis (PCA) and loss on ignition suggested a key control of sediment conditions on macrophyte community structure. In particular the major macrophyte community change of the mid-nineteenth century was concurrent with a substantial increase in organic matter, likely linked to a historic lake lowering (early 1830s) which would have beached the former gravel-sand shoreline leading to a much siltier lake littoral. Although recent monitoring data show signs of ecological recovery our study illustrates that Loch Leven remains a long way from its reference state as a lake with characteristic soft-water macrophytes. To achieve a full recovery, sediment properties would need to change in addition to nutrient reduction. Consequently restoration strategies will need to compromise between the desirability of achieving the pre-disturbance state and what is feasible and practicable. Our study shows the clear potential role of a combined palaeolimnological-historical approach for informing lake management decisions.     

Defining ecological and chemical reference conditions and restoration targets for nine European lakes

This paper aims to determine the ecological and chemical reference conditions (~1800?C1850 AD) and degree of floristic change at nine enriched lakes, covering a range of types across Europe, using fossil diatom assemblages in dated sediment cores and application of total phosphorus (TP) transfer functions. Additionally the study assesses the potential of analogue matching as a technique for identifying reference sites and for estimating reference TP concentrations for the study lakes using a training set of 347 European lakes and 719 diatom taxa. Oligotrophic, acidophilous to circumneutral taxa were predominant in the reference samples of several of the deep lakes, and benthic Fragilaria spp. dominated the reference samples of two high alkalinity shallow lakes. The degree of floristic change from the reference sample, assessed using the squared chord distance (SCD) dissimilarity coefficient, revealed that two sites had experienced slight change (Lago Maggiore, Felbrigg Lake), five experienced moderate change (Mjoesa, Loch Davan, Loch Leven, White Lough, Esthwaite Water), and two showed evidence of major change (Groby Pool, Piburger See). For three lakes, there were no analogues in the diatom dataset owing to the uniqueness and diversity of the diatom reference assemblages. For the remaining six sites the number of analogues ranged from 2 to 44. For two deep lakes most of the analogues seemed appropriate as they were of the same type and had low TP concentrations. However, for two other deep lakes and two shallow lakes some of the analogues differed markedly in their depth and alkalinity from the lake in question or had TP concentrations seemingly too high to represent reference conditions suggesting that the analogues may not be suitable as reference sites. For the deep lakes, similar reference TP values were calculated using the EDDI Combined TP transfer function and the analogue matching technique with concentrations typically <20 ??g L^?1. However, for the shallow lakes, the analogue matching method produced inferred values considerably higher than those of the transfer function. The wide ecological tolerances of many of the diatom taxa found in the reference samples most likely explain the selection of inappropriate analogue sites. In summary, the study demonstrates that palaeoecological techniques can play a valuable role in determining reference conditions and indicates that the analogue matching technique has the potential to be a useful tool for identifying appropriate reference sites for lakes impacted by eutrophication.     

Restoring degraded landscapes in lowland Namaqualand: Lessons from the mining experience and from regional ecological dynamics

Three-quarters of a century ago diamond mining was added to livestock grazing and cereal cropping as a serious cause of landscape degradation in the north-western semi-arid region of South Africa, Namaqualand. Since that time the activities of diamond mine operators and prospectors have eclipsed all other land uses as a cause of degradation in this region. Discontinuous patches along virtually all of the 400 km of the Namaqualand coastline have been, or are currently, being mined or prospected. Prior to 1992 little was done to restore the landscapes and ecosystems to their pre-mining state, but since then legislation has placed a clear responsibility for restoration on mining operators. Implementation of ecological restoration was initially slow, but has recently gained momentum, in line with a growing awareness of environmental responsibilities amongst the global mining industry. In general, autogenic recovery of the perennial vegetation does not take place. The low annual rainfall and prevailing strong windy conditions present the greatest climatic challenges to the restoration of the flora. While the unique vegetation, and its features (e.g. poor representation of perennial species in the seedbank) present challenges to understanding the interventions that are critical in achieving ecological restoration. At the same time, climatic conditions such as the strong seasonality and low variability of rainfall, together with floristic features such as the high incidence of succulence, and the extraordinary drought tolerance of many seedlings, present opportunities for restoration. Perhaps the greatest challenges to restoration derive from the unsuitability of much of the mined overburden soils for plant growth. The nature and importance of climatic conditions, mined soils, topsoils, soil nutrients, landscaping, seedbanks, seeding, transplantation, and the interactions between these and other factors are evaluated in the context of this semi-arid environment and the prevailing mining practices.     

中国土地利用时空特征分析

在遥感技术与GIS技术的支持下，对中国近5年来土地利用的时间动态特征和空间动态特征进行了定量分析。具体表现为通过数学建模，利用土地利用动态度模型、土地利用程度模型、垦殖指数模型等对土地利用时空特征进行了分析。研究结果表明：5年间中国土地利用类型发生变化比较大的区域主要分布在东部和北部地区，特别是东北部地区土地利用类型变化比较剧烈，而西部变化相对缓慢；土地利用各类型中面积增加的有耕地、水域、建设用地和未利用地，而林地、草地面积减少；耕地增加的区域位于东北部地区，特别是黑龙江省耕地面积增加最多；林草地以及未利用地的面积变化主要发生在新疆、内蒙和黑龙江等地区，其它地区变化幅度相对较小。     

黄土高原植被恢复潜力研究

黄土高原从1999年开始大规模退耕还林（草）,植被覆盖发生了较大变化,对黄土高原植被恢复现状和恢复潜力进行评估具有重要意义。本文使用1999-2013年SPOT VEG NDVI数据,采用线性回归、Hurst指数分析法、统计学方法以及地理空间分析技术,对黄土高原植被恢复状况和潜力进行了探讨。结论主要为：① 1999年退耕还林（草）以来,黄土高原植被覆盖度呈显著上升趋势,黄土高原三分之二地区的植被将会持续改善;② 植被响应曲线分析表明,黄土区植被覆盖度和干旱指数呈显著的指数关系,且缓坡相关性大于陡坡。土石山区植被响应函数为线性函数,相关系数下降;③ 整个黄土高原地区平均植被恢复潜力为69.75%。植被恢复潜力值东南高而西北低,黄土高原东南地区植被恢复状况较好,其植被恢复潜力指数较小,而植被恢复潜力指数较高的地区主要为北方风沙区及西部丘陵沟壑区;④ 不同降水量条件下,植被恢复速度差别显著,其中降水量在375~575 mm之间的地区,植被恢复最快。植被恢复措施应该“因水制宜”,避免因造林带来的土壤干化加剧。研究结果以期为黄土高原生态文明建设提供科学支撑。     

干旱区典型流域近30年土地利用/土地覆被变化的分形特征分析——以玛纳斯河流域为例

利用1976、1989、2005年三期遥感影像,运用GIS和分形理论研究干旱区典型流域——玛纳斯河流域近30年的土地利用/土地覆被变化的复杂性和稳定性。结果表明:玛纳斯河流域各时段的土地利用/土地覆被类型分布具有分形结构,土地利用/土地覆被类型形状复杂性和斑块的稳定性波动变化,1976、1989、2005年三时期的各种土地利用/土地覆被类型总平均分维值分别为1.394 0、1.363 4和1.389 9。总平均稳定性指数分别为0.606 0、0.636 6、0.610 1。三期土地利用/覆被类型平均稳定性排序为:沙地>未利用土地>居民点工矿用地>水域>林地>草地>耕地>盐碱地。耕地、林地、草地、盐碱地稳定性相对较差。通过对流域土地利用/土地覆被类型变化复杂性和稳定性的研究,可以为政府协调水土开发和调整土地利用结构提供支持。     

中国的荒漠化及其防治策略

中国作为世界上受荒漠化影响最为严重的国家之一,旱地面积约332万km2(占国土面积的34.6％,包括干旱区、半干旱区和亚湿润干旱区),其中超过262万km2归属联合国防治荒漠化公约定义的“荒漠化土地”;主要分布在全国18个省、区、市.超过4亿人生活在荒漠化地区,每年因荒漠化造成的直接经济损失超过640亿元.中国治沙的实践可以追溯到20世纪50年代.特别是最近30年,先后通过“三北防护林”工程(1978年启动)、全国防沙治沙工程(1990年启动)、环京津风沙源治理工程和退耕还林还草工程(2000年启动)等一系列国家级生态治理工程的实施,以年均0.024％ GDP的投入,治理和修复了大约20％的荒漠化土地.目前,以现有技术评估,可治理的沙化土地约有50×104 km2.考虑到全球变暖的影响,预测未来50年需要治理的荒漠化土地面积大致在55×104-100×104 km2之间.若按照每年1.5×104-2.2×104 km2的治理速度,大约需要45 -70年之久.规划安排到2015年治理完成22×104 km2,到2030年治理面积新增33×104 kim2,到2050年治理完成45×104 km2.基于国家生态修复投资战略的总体安排,未来防沙治沙决策应从以下四个方面着眼:一是强化多部门协作的综合治理;二是确立优先治理区,并在适当地方建立“生态特区”;三是改变投资模式,由目前政府直接投资植树改为投资买林、买绿;四是完善土地承包制度(70年权属不变)和实行生态补偿.     

The impact of heterogeneity of land surface roughness length on estimation of turbulent flux in model

Based on preliminary theoretical analysis and numerical experiment, it is found that land surface heterogeneity plays an important role in the models turbulent flux calculation. In nearly neutral atmosphere conditions, variation coefficient of sub-scale roughness length, cell-average roughness, and reference height are main factors affecting the calculation of grid turbulent fluxes. The first factor has a determinant role on calculation deviation. The relative error generated by roughness heterogeneity could be more than 40% in some cases in certain areas (e.g., in vegetation-climate transition belt). Selecting a specific reference height may improve the calculation of turbulent flux. In stable or unstable atmosphere conditions, with sensible heat flux as an example, analysis shows that the discrepancy is correlated to the sub-grid distributions of mean wind velocity, potential temperature gradient between land surface and reference levels, and atmosphere stability near surface layer caused by the heterogeneity of land surface roughness. The calculation of turbulent flux is the most sensitive to stability in the above three factors. The above analysis shows that it is necessary to make a further consideration for the calculation deviation of the turbulent fluxes brought from land surface heterogeneity in the present numerical models.     

Overview of Ecological Restoration Technologies and Evaluation Systems

Ecological degradation is a global problem, and ecological restoration technologies have played and will continue to play an important role in its mitigation. However, the lack of systematic research and evaluations of ecological technologies has thus far affected their effective application in vulnerable ecological regions. This study therefore provides an overview of the main technologies for remediating soil and water erosion, desertification, and rock desertification in China and throughout the world. It addresses key issues and recommends approaches for evaluating ecological restoration technologies. Restoration technology emerged as early as 1800. Over the years such technology has changed from single objective applications to multi-purpose, multi-objective applications employing strategies that take into account ecosystem rehabilitation and integrated ecological and socioeconomic development. Along with this technological evolution, different countries have taken pertinent actions as part of their restoration initiatives. However, key issues remain, including the lack of location-specific restoration technologies and a methodological strategy to assess and prioritize existing technologies. This study proposes a four-level analytical hierarchical framework in conjunction with an indicator system that highlights the establishment and adaptation of associative indicators, while also recommending a three-phase evaluation method (TheMert), targeting TheMert to qualitative (quick and extensive) and quantitative (detailed) evaluations in order to select the most appropriate restoration technologies available. This study can also be used as a basis for understanding the evaluation and prioritization of restoration technologies, while increasing the awareness of decision makers and the public on the role of technology in restoring degraded ecosystems.