Impact and analysis of geotechnical processes on earthfill dam breaching

For over three decades, emergency planners have used numerical models to predict breaching in earthfill dams due to extreme events such as overtopping. However, current models neglect the role of the unsaturated zone present within the downstream face of an earthfill dam. This leads to an incorrect estimation of the time and space evolution of the breaching process, as such models often oversimplify governing geotechnical aspects such as the presence of the unsaturated soil medium in the vicinity of the breach channel. The stress state in the soil due to matric suction acts as a stabilizing force for the breaching mechanism and influences the erosion of the breach channel, especially during the initial phases of the breaching. The side-slope failure mechanism observed along the breach channel is also influenced by the negative pore-water-pressures in the soil. Based on a comprehensive experimental research program carried out in the Hydraulics Laboratory at the University of Ottawa, Canada, several new concepts are proposed to incorporate geotechnical factors and techniques which must be considered during the construction of earthfill dam models for laboratory testing. Two main findings emerged from this experimental work. First, the installation of a drainage mattress at the downstream toe of the dam depressed the phreatic surface through the earthfill dam body, which caused a lag in the breaching process due to the infiltration and reduced erosion occurring in the breach channel. Second, it is essential to control compaction during the construction of the earthfill dam model, since this significantly influences the erosion, as well as the side-slope failures which occur in the breach channel. Future studies are under way by the authors with the purpose of scaling of parameters such as the matric suction and soil erodibility.     

粘土心墙坝漫顶溃坝过程离心模型试验与数值模拟

利用作者研制成功的溃坝离心模型试验系统,对粘土心墙坝漫顶溃决过程进行了试验研究,结果发现粘土心墙坝与均质坝溃决机理与溃口发展规律明显不同,随着漫坝水流对下游坝壳冲蚀程度的增加,粘土心墙发生剪断破坏,溃口洪水流量迅速增大.基于上述试验结果,提出了一个描述粘土心墙坝漫顶溃坝过程的数学模型,并建议了相应的数值计算方法.该模型...     

Numerical simulation of landslide dam breaching due to overtopping

The breach of landslide dam often causes significant disaster in the inundated area; the prediction of breach hydrograph is in high demand for the dam breach risk evaluation. In this study, according to the model tests and Tangjiashan landslide dam breach case, the surface erosion accompanied by intermittent mass failure is known as the key breaching mechanism for landslide dam due to overtopping failure. The downstream slope angle would gradually decrease during the dam-breaching process, whereas a planar wedge failure occurs when the breach slopes at the dam crest and downstream breach channel fail. Based on the breach mechanism, a numerical model for landslide dam breach due to overtopping is developed to simulate the coupling process of water and soil. The model focuses on the breach morphology evolution during the breaching for the sake of the improvement of breach hydrograph prediction. Furthermore, the model can handle one- and two-sided breach, as well as incomplete and base erosion at the vertical direction. The case study of Tangjiashan landslide dam-breaching feedback analysis testifies the rationality of the present model with the relative errors less than 10% for peak discharge, final breach widths, and time to peak. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the final breach depth and soil erodibility affect the breach flow prediction of the landslide dam significantly, whereas the one- or two-sided breach mode is less sensitive.     

Breaching parameters of landslide dams

Landslide dams pose enormous risks to the public because of the potentially catastrophic floods generated by breaching of such dams. The need to better understand the threats of landslide dams raises questions about the proper estimation of breaching parameters (breach size, breaching duration, and peak outflow rate) of landslide dams and the feasibility of applying models for estimating the breaching parameters of man-made earthen dams to landslide dams. This paper aims to answer these two questions. In this study, a database of 1,239 landslide dams, including 257 cases formed during the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, has been compiled. Based on records of 52 landslide dam cases with breaching information in the database, empirical models for estimating the breaching parameters of landslide dams are developed. A comparison study between landslide dams and man-made earth and rockfill dams is conducted, which shows that the models for man-made earth and rockfill dams are not suitable for estimating the breaching parameters of landslide dams. Two case studies are presented to show the application of the set of empirical models developed in this paper.     

喜马拉雅中段冰湖终碛坝体溃决过程实验研究

终碛坝广泛分布于世界各地的高山和极高山区。为了探究终碛坝的溃决过程,了解溃口的演变特征,文章以嘉龙错终碛坝的原位实验,模拟了终碛湖漫顶溃决过程。通过分析实验结果发现:（1）根据观察,将终碛坝溃决过程划分为坝体下游坡面冲刷、“溯源侵蚀”、出水口下切和溃口拓宽四个阶段。（2）上游湖区崩塌体激发的涌浪会造成溃口内的瞬时流量增加数倍,从而使得在有涌浪和无涌浪的条件下,“溯源侵蚀”过程出现陡坎和斜坡两种下切型。（3）通过分析溃口下切侵蚀过程,发现溃口的下切侵蚀发展过程主要受到坝体孔隙比和细粒含量的影响,并且溃口中点侵蚀率与水流剪应力存在一定的线性关系,符合线性侵蚀模型。通过分析发现,嘉龙错终碛坝的侵蚀系数为0.051,临界启动应力为237.64 Pa。与堰塞坝相比,可侵蚀系数比更小,而临界启动应力更大。     

Development of an empirical model for predicting peak breach flow of landslide dams considering material composition

The existing empirical models do not consider the influence of material composition of landslide deposits on the peak breach flow due to the uncertainty in the material composition and the randomness of its distribution. In this study, based on the statistical analyses and case comparison, the factors influencing the peak breach flow were comprehensively investigated. The highlight is the material composition-based classification of landslide deposits of 86 landslide cases with detailed grain-size distribution information. In order to consider the geometric morphology of landslide dams and the potential energy of dammed lakes, as well as the material composition of landslide deposits in an empirical model, a multiple regression method was applied on a database, which comprises of 44 documented landslide dam breach cases. A new empirical model for predicting the peak breach flow of landslide dams was developed. Furthermore, for the same 44 documented landslide dam failures, the predicted peak breach flow obtained by using the existing empirical models for embankment and landslide dams and that obtained by using the newly developed model were compared. The comparison of the root mean square error (E_rms) and the multiple coefficient of determination (R²) for each empirical model verifies the accuracy and rationality of the new empirical model. Furthermore, for fair validation, several landslide dam breach cases that occurred in recent years in China and have reliable measured data were also used in another comparison. The results show that the new empirical model can reasonably predict the peak breach flow, and exhibits the best performance among all the existing empirical models for embankment and landslide dam breaching.

     

土石坝溃决模拟及水流计算研究进展

对土石坝溃决模拟技术的最新研究成果进行了总结和评价,在此基础上对该研究领域今后的研究工作提出了若干建议,包括:应研究提出不同坝型溃决可能性分析评价方法;针对不同坝型开展溃坝离心模型试验,揭示在不同致灾因子作用下,土石坝溃决机理和溃口发展过程;开展土石坝初始管涌形成以后发展过程的试验研究,揭示孔流转变为堰流的控制条件;针对溃坝水流的流线曲率较大、溃坝水流大多是非恒定超临界流以及筑坝材料粒径级配范围变化大等特点,开展大型溃坝水工水力学模型试验,揭示不同坝型的溃口流量过程、泥沙输移及下游河道洪水演进规律。     

考虑不同泄流槽方案的堰塞坝溃决机理分析——以唐家山堰塞坝为例

近年来,频发的地质构造活动和极端气候灾害诱发了大量堰塞坝,严重威胁上下游群众的生命财产安全。开挖泄流槽是最常用降低堰塞坝溃决风险的措施,由于时间非常急迫、交通极度瘫痪,其开挖量非常有限,因此如何利用有限的开挖量将溃坝风险降低至最小是亟待解决的问题。本文基于水土耦合冲刷机理,提出了考虑不同泄流槽方案的堰塞坝溃决机理分析方法,并应用于唐家山堰塞坝。该方法根据水力学参数和坝体抗冲刷性参数动态计算瞬时坝体冲刷率,进而分析泄流槽对溃决全过程的影响,从而自动获取最优的泄流槽设计方案。将此方法应用于唐家山堰塞坝案例发现:唐家山堰塞坝泄流槽最优设计时溃坝洪峰流量为1700m3·s-1,小于实际峰值流量6500m3·s-1,主要是因为增大泄流槽的纵坡率,显著增强溃坝前的冲刷并形成双洪峰,从而有效降低了溃决峰值流量。由于复合槽相对较小的水力半径限制了溃坝前的冲刷,使得临溃时水位较高,因此溃坝峰值流量比单槽大,溃坝风险降低效果不如单槽。     

考虑河床坡度和泄流槽横断面影响的堰塞坝溃决过程试验研究

针对缺乏地形条件和工程处置措施对堰塞坝溃决过程影响研究的现状,采用4种河床坡度(0°、1°、2°、3°)和3种泄流槽横断面型式(三角形、梯形、复合型),开展了堰塞坝溃决的模型试验。通过分析堰塞坝的溃决流量、溃决历时、溃口发展和坝体纵截面演变过程,研究了不同河床坡度和泄流槽横断面对堰塞坝溃决过程的影响规律。试验结果表明:(1)堰塞坝溃决过程可分为3个阶段。阶段Ⅰ:溃口形成阶段,溃决流量较小;阶段Ⅱ:溃口发展阶段,水流下蚀及侧蚀强烈,溃决流量到达峰值;阶段Ⅲ:衰减-平衡阶段,粗化层形成,溃口停止发展。(2)河床坡度增加意味着下游坝坡、坝顶及泄流槽的坡度增加,导致水流侵蚀能力增强,溃口下切迅猛,因此在0°～3°范围内河床坡度越大,峰值流量越大,峰现时间越早,溃决流量过程曲线越趋于“高瘦型”,且残留坝高越小。(3)泄流槽横断面型式不同导致其槽深、槽宽和侧坡坡度不同,进而影响溃口发展和溃决流量。三角形槽的水土作用面积小,溃口下切及展宽速率最高,峰值流量最大,峰现时间最早;梯形槽的槽底高程最高,水土作用面积最大,溃口下切速率最低,峰现时间最晚;而复合槽介于前两者之间。试验成果将为堰塞坝应急抢险和工...     

Measurement of debris mass changes and assessment of the dam-break flood potential of earthquake-triggered Hattian landslide dam

The Hattian landslide, which was triggered by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, formed one of largest landslide dams in the world and it has posed a serious threat of flooding to people living in the lower reach of the Jhelum River. In order to understand deformation occurring in the body of the dam, physical measurements using a Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) were conducted. Gradual deformation and slowly developing backward erosion initially were observed, leading eventually to a sudden creation of a deep hollow on the downstream slope of the landslide dam. The dimensions of this eroded gully were determined by laser scanning, and the results showed a significant loss of soil volume and a large change in the body of the dam. A breach formation model was used to predict the outflow hydrograph generated by constant downcutting of dam during a breaching event. A run-off analysis of the outflow hydrograph was conducted to evaluate inundation levels of flood waves in case the dam is breached. Hazardous downstream locations were identified near the junction of the Karli and Jhelum Rivers, suggesting a need for early warning system in order to avoid loss of lives.     

不同初始含水量条件下的堰塞坝溃决机理

在影响堰塞坝溃决的众多因素中,初始含水量影响堰塞坝的溃决机理仍不清楚。通过开展不同初始含水量条件下的水槽试验,详细探究了初始含水量对溃决过程的影响规律。结果表明：不同初始含水量条件下的溃决过程均具有3个典型阶段,分别是牵引侵蚀过程、溯源侵蚀过程和水沙运动再平衡过程;峰值流量随初始含水量的增大而增大,而溃决历时和残留坝体高度随初始含水量的增大而减小;随初始含水量的增大,溯源侵蚀作用逐渐减弱,牵引侵蚀作用增强;随初始含水量的增大,溃口展宽率降低,侵蚀率增大;初始含水量小于7.8%时,平均侵蚀率增长缓慢,大于7.8%后,平均侵蚀率增长迅速,且10.3%初始含水量对应的平均侵蚀率约为7.8%初始含水量的2倍;溃口宽深比在溃决的前两阶段随初始含水量的增大而减小;溃决结束后的宽深比随含水量的增大呈先趋近于1.00、后远离1.00的演变。     

Physically based simulation of dam breach development for Tangjiashan Quake Dam,China

Physically based modeling approach has been widely developed in recent years for simulation of dam failure process resulting from overtopping flow. Due to the lack of field data, there exist few applications to natural quake dams with complex erosion mechanisms. This paper presents a physically based simulation of the failure process of the Tangjiashan Quake Dam formed as a result of the “May 12, 2008” Wenchuan earthquake in China. The one-dimensional model adopted features as cost saving but enables capturing the main characteristics of the failure process, where selective sediment transport and gravitational slope collapse are accounted for. The simulated flow hydrograph and breach progression process are generally in good agreement with the observed data. Unsteadiness and non-uniformity are found to be substantial characteristics of breach progression during the failure process of natural quake dams. Sensitivity analysis showed that the Manning resistance coefficient and the erodibility coefficient in Osman and Thorne’s (J Hydraul Eng 114(2):134–150, 1988) model significantly influences the flow peak discharge but has less influence on its occurrence time, while the velocity lag coefficient associated with bed-load transport may affect the two breaching parameters substantially.     

堰塞坝溃坝模型实验研究综述

堰塞坝是天然形成的坝体,结构比较松散、稳定性差、渗透作用强,发生溃决危险性大、概率高、突发性强,而且破坏可能性高及产生的洪水威胁人们的生命和财产安全,因此需要系统、全面的研究。作者从单坝溃坝、级联溃坝及堰塞坝处置的溃坝试验进行详细的回顾,总结及分析了国内外学者在堰塞坝溃坝模型实验取得的成果及局限性,进一步分析了单坝溃决的颗粒级配、密实度、含水率、沟床坡度等因素,最后讨论了溃坝因素与溃决模式、溃决特征、溃决流量、溃口演化的关系。基于模型实验相似理论及模型比尺、实验测试手段、堰塞坝处置三个方面,提出了今后的研究重点。     

Dam-break risk analysis of the Attabad landslide dam in Pakistan and emergency countermeasures

The Attabad landslide dam caused significant property losses and many human casualties in Pakistan, and also greatly affected the operation of the China-Pakistan Karakoram Highway (KKH). This paper discusses the risk of dam breach and hazards to the KKH project construction site following a dam breach. The paper examines the following three topics. (1) The geomorphologic dimensionless blockage index (DBI) and the analogy method were used to analyze the stability of the Attabad landslide dam. The long-term behaviors of landslide dams downstream of the Attabad landslide dam indicate that the risk of a dam breach exists, but the probability of a total dam failure is low. (2) The peak discharge of a potential breach of the Attabad landslide dam was calculated for scenarios in which 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, and total failure of the dam was breached. The potential breach discharge decreases with the downstream distance. (3) The potential impacts of the landslide dam breach on the KKH project construction site were analyzed. Based on the composition of the landslide dam, the probability of a 1/3 dam breach is high. To ensure the safety of downstream areas, disaster preparedness plans that correspond to the 1/2 dam breach scenario should be developed. Based on experience in addressing the landslide dam that was caused by the Wenchuan Earthquake, artificial controlled drainage measures are suggested and provide a technical reference for addressing the Attabad landslide dam and achieving recovery and normal operation of KKH.     

Combined numerical investigation of the Gangda paleolandslide runout and associated dam breach flood propagation in the upper Jinsha River,SE Tibetan Plateau

A large paleolandslide occurred opposite the Gangda village in the upper Jinsha River, SE Tibetan Plateau. Field geological investigations and remote sensing indicated that the Gangda paleolandslide once blocked the Jinsha River. Evidence of river blocking, including landslide dam relics, upstream lacustrine sediments, and downstream outburst sediments, has been well preserved. To understand the river-blocking event including landslide, dam breach, and associated outburst flooding, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating and numerical simulations were performed in this study. OSL dating results showed that the paleolandslide dam was formed at 5.4?±?0.5 ka BP and breached at 3.4?±?0.3 ka BP, indicating that the dam lasted approximately 2000 years. The discrete element method was used to simulate the dynamics of the Gangda rock landslide based on the restored topography, while a fluid–solid coupling model was performed to simulate the landslide dam breaching and flooding. The fluid–solid coupling model can simultaneously reflect the process of landslide-dam collapse and the propagation of outburst flood. The simulated results indicate that the whole landslide process lasted about 60 s with a peak velocity of 38 m/s. It is significant that the simulated morphology of the residual landslide dam and downstream outburst sediments is consistent with the field observations. The combined numerical investigation in this paper provided new insights into the research of landscape evolution and helped to understand the chain disaster of landslide, dam breach, and flooding.

     

Numerical SPH analysis of debris flow run-out and related river damming scenarios for a local case study in SW China

A smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) numerical modeling method implemented for the forward simulation of propagation and deposition of flow-type landslides was combined with different empirical geomorphological index approaches for the assessment of the formation of landslide dams and their possible evolution for a local case study in southwestern China. The SPH model was calibrated with a previously occurred landslide that formed a stable dam impounding the main river, and it enabled the simulation of final landslide volumes, and the spatial distribution of the resulting landslide deposits. At four different sites on the endangered slope, landslides of three different volumes were simulated, respectively. All landslides deposited in the main river, bearing the potential for either stable impoundment of the river and upstream flooding scenarios, or sudden breach of incompletely formed or unstable landslide dams and possible outburst floods downstream. With the empirical indices, none of the cases could be identified as stable formed landslide dam when considering thresholds reported in the literature, showing up the limitations of these indices for particular case studies of small or intermediate landslide volumes and the necessity to adapt thresholds accordingly for particular regions or sites. Using the occurred benchmark landslide as a reference, two cases could be identified where a complete blockage occurs that is more stable than the reference case. The other cases where a complete blockage was simulated can be considered as potential dam-breach scenarios.     

岷江上游叠溪混杂堆积体的沉积特征及其成因分析

青藏高原东缘岷江上游叠溪河谷段在地质历史时期发生了一次大规模滑坡堵江事件,形成一个特大型堰塞湖。堰塞湖形成后在晚更新世晚期(约27 ka B.P.)发生了溃决,并在坝体下游形成长约5 km的天然混杂堆积体,判断其为叠溪古滑坡堰塞湖溃决后形成的溃坝堆积。该套溃坝堆积体具有叠瓦构造、孔洞构造、块状构造、杂基构造、支撑—叠置构造及韵律互层构造。从上游至下游,溃坝堆积体的出露厚度逐渐变薄,砾石碎屑成分表现出由粗变细的变化趋势。溃坝堆积体是由高流态灾难性洪流及常态流和河流态两种机制形成,相应地具有两大类沉积相:巨砾层相及砾石层相和砂层相,依据溃坝堆积的地貌结构和沉积相特征可以推断叠溪古滑坡堰塞湖至少发生过一次极其罕见的灾难性溃决洪水事件。     

Landslide dam failure and flood hydraulics. Part I: experimental investigation

Landslide dam failure can trigger catastrophic flooding in the downstream. However, field observation of such flooding is rarely available, while laboratory experimental studies are sparse. The mechanism of landslide dam failure and the flood has so far remained insufficiently understood. Here, we present an experimental investigation of landslide dam failure and the flood. A total of 28 runs of experiments are carried out in a flume of 80 m × 1.2 m × 0.8 m, with differing inflow discharge, dam composition, dam geometry, and initial breach dimension. An array of twelve automatic water-level probes is deployed to measure the stage hydrographs along the flume, and the video recording of the dam failure processes facilitates an estimation of the widening of initial breach. Under the present experimental conditions with dams composed of homogeneous materials, landslide dam failure is primarily caused by erosion of overtopping flow, and lateral mass collapse is also considerable during the cause of breach widening. Cohesive clay may act to mitigate the seepage through the dam and thus its subsidence and appreciably modulate the dam failure process and the flood. However, the impacts of clay may be readily overwhelmed by a large inflow discharge and initial breach. Gravels in the dam may appreciably depress the rate of the dam failure process and thus modify the flood. The present work provides new experimental data set for testing mathematical models of the flood flow due to landslide dam failure.     

红石河堰塞湖漫顶溃坝风险评估

四川省青川县红石河堰塞湖是2008年5月12日汶川大地震形成的34座大型堰塞湖之一,是由东河口滑坡堵塞红石河形成的。该堰塞体高度约50 m、宽度约250 m、顺河向长度约500 m、形成的最大库容约400万m3。本文作者对红石河堰塞体做了较详尽的现场试验,包括土的冲蚀试验、土的基本物性试验等。基于现场试验数据,对土的冲蚀性和漫顶溃坝风险做了详细的分析。结果显示,从土的抗冲蚀性角度考虑,只要有水溢出就会有土体被冲蚀,这说明红石河堰塞体的漫顶溃决可能性较高。本文还提出经验公式来预测红石河堰塞体漫顶的溃决时间,大约为4.5d,如果考虑到大石块对抗冲蚀稳定性的有利影响,这一数值会增大。此外,还研究了溃决深度随时间的变化规律。     

An evaluation of existent methods for estimation of embankment dam breach parameters

The study of dam-break analysis is considered important to predict the peak discharge during dam failure. This is essential to assess economic, social and environmental impacts downstream and to prepare the emergency response plan. Dam breach parameters such as breach width, breach height and breach formation time are the key variables to estimate the peak discharge during dam break. This study presents the evaluation of existing methods for estimation of dam breach parameters. Since all of these methods adopt regression analysis, uncertainty analysis of these methods becomes necessary to assess their performance. Uncertainty was performed using the data of more than 140 case studies of past recorded failures of dams, collected from different sources in the literature. The accuracy of the existing methods was tested, and the values of mean absolute relative error were found to be ranging from 0.39 to 1.05 for dam breach width estimation and from 0.6 to 0.8 for dam failure time estimation. In this study, artificial neural network (ANN) was recommended as an alternate method for estimation of dam breach parameters. The ANN method is proposed due to its accurate prediction when it was applied to similar other cases in water resources.