Propagation properties of guided wave in the anchorage structure of rock bolts

We investigated the properties of guided wave propagating in grouted rock bolts and the formation of the interface wave through theoretical analysis along with experimental and numerical simulations. Experimental and numerical simulations reveal that the wave propagating in anchorage structure is related to boundary conditions within the range of excitation wave frequencies. Waves with different frequencies have different propagation velocities and attenuation characteristics. The optimal excitation wave occurs in grouted rock bolts with minimized attenuation and maximized propagation distance, and the end reflection of grouted rock bolts can be observed clearly. Longitudinal wave propagating in rock bolts is very sensitive to anchorage strength. With the increase of anchorage strength, longitudinal wave gradually attenuates and eventually disappears. Subsequently, interface wave appears and the velocity of wave propagating in the grouted part becomes that of the interface wave. Based on these studies, ultrasonic guided wave was used to study the end reflection of embedded rock bolts with different anchorage strengths and bonding lengths. The relationships among anchorage strength, bonding length and attenuation coefficient K, as well as the means to inspect the bonding quality of the embedded rock bolts were also evaluated.     

A new approach for field instrumentation in grouted rock bolt monitoring using guided ultrasonic waves

A rock bolt installed in the field for ground support has only one short exposed end on the rock surface. This condition has posed challenges in field instrumentation. In this paper, a new approach for field monitoring of grouted rock bolts using guided ultrasonic waves is proposed with the receiving transducer on the grout surface near the exposed end of the bolt. The effects of the receiver location are studied with numerical modeling. A location correction factor is introduced to correlate the amplitude ratio along the bolt and that on the grout surface. Experiments are conducted to verify the modeling results. This research indicates that it is practically possible to receive meaningful signals with the receiver on the grout surface and that with the recorded data the attenuation and wave velocity of guided waves in grouted rock bolts can be determined with reasonable accuracy. The proper receiver location is found to be 27 to 32 mm from the bolt center for the test condition.     

冲击载荷下锚杆-围岩结构冲击失效机制的数值分析

针对冲击地压造成大量锚杆支护结构破坏问题,采用动力数值计算方法,研究冲击载荷作用下锚杆-围岩的动力耦合作用与破坏机制。结果表明:(1)冲击载荷作用下锚杆与围岩振动存在明显的"时差效应",导致锚杆与围岩非同步振动,致使锚固剂承受动态剪切作用。随着锚固长度的增加锚杆与围岩的振动呈同步趋势,削弱了振动"时差效应"引起的锚固剂剪切作用,有效避免锚杆的脱粘滑移失效;(2)随着冲击速度的增大,"时差效应"导致锚杆锚固剂承受动态剪切作用被覆盖,锚杆的破坏失效模式由脱粘或杆体屈服断裂转变为锚杆与围岩统一破坏模式;(3)当冲击载荷频率接近锚固围岩体固有频率时,冲击载荷引起锚杆与围岩共振,锚杆与围岩同步振动速度幅值显著增大,可在相对较低的冲击速度下造成锚杆与围岩整体失效。远离锚固围岩体的固有频率对锚杆-围岩动力相互作用影响较小。     

A numerical study of the behavior of fully grouted rockbolts under dynamic loading

The widespread preference for rockbolts in providing adequate rock stability in underground mines and man-made cavities make it necessary to obtain a better understanding of the response of these support systems. It is widely accepted that the fully grouted rockbolts provide better roof stability in areas of very poor roof condition which may be caused by high ground stress conditions. There is little information about the in situ behavior of these systems especially under dynamic loading. Hence, to study the behavior of fully grouted rockbolts under dynamic loading, a numerical modeling study was conducted using the FLAC^3D code. In this study the behavior of three types of fully grouted rockbolts were compared with each other including rockbolts with and without head plate and a yielding type one. The results of analyses indicated that under dynamic loading the fully grouted rockbolts without the head plate are incapable of controlling the rock mass movement. Although fully grouted rockbolts with head plate damp a considerable amount of the dynamic energy through friction as these bolts slide within the grout, but the elongation of the rockbolt is not possible due to the rapid breakage of the rockbolt–grout interface. Yielding rockbolts are the best choice for the absorption of the dynamic stress wave and controlling of the rock mass movement. The obtained results show that the optimal design of yielding rockbolt should be in such a way that after dynamic loading, anchoring part of bolt has a limited movement to prevent stress concentration in the shaft of rockbolt and its breakage.     

Generation of baroclinic topographic waves by a tropical cyclone impacting a low-latitude continental shelf

Numerical model experiments have been performed to analyze the low-latitude baroclinic continental shelf response to a tropical cyclone. The theory of coastally trapped waves suggests that, provided appropriate slope, latitude, stratification and wind stress, bottom-intensified topographic Rossby waves can be generated by the storm. Based on a scale analysis, the Nicaragua Shelf is chosen to study propagating topographic waves excited by a storm, and a model domain is configured with simplified but similar geometry. The model is forced with wind stress representative of a hurricane translating slowly over the region at 6 km h⁻¹. Scale analysis leads to the assumption that baroclinic Kelvin wave modes have minimal effect on the low-frequency wave motions along the slope, and coastal-trapped waves are restricted to topographic Rossby waves. Analysis of the simulated motions suggests that the shallow part of the continental slope is under the influence of barotropic topographic wave motions and at the deeper part of the slope baroclinic topographic Rossby waves dominate the low-frequency motions. Numerical solutions are in a good agreement with theoretical scale analysis. Characteristics of the simulated baroclinic waves are calculated based on linear theory of bottom-intensified topographic Rossby waves. Simulated waves have periods ranging from 153 to 203 h. The length scale of the waves is from 59 to 87 km. Analysis of energy fluxes for a fixed volume on the slope reveals predominantly along-isobath energy propagation in the direction of the group velocity of a topographic Rossby wave. Another model experiment forced with a faster translating hurricane demonstrates that fast moving tropical cyclones do not excite energetic baroclinic topographic Rossby waves. Instead, robust inertial oscillations are identified over the slope.     

Velocity anisotropy and attenuation of shale in under- and overpressured conditions

The seismic velocity and attenuation of fully saturated shales were measured for the first time under overpressured conditions, using the ultrasonic reflection technique. Shale cores from naturally overpressured horizons in the North Sea were tested in the laboratory, at confining and pore pressures relevant to in situ conditions.
A single-frequency tone-burst pulse wave was used to determine the seismic wave velocities and quality factors of the shale samples, with errors less than 0.3% and 0.1 dB/cm, respectively, at a frequency of 0.75 MHz. Sample length changes with varying confining and pore pressure were measured and the pore pressure equilibration time was monitored for each sample.
The anisotropy of the seismic attributes ( V _p, V _s, Q _p and Q _s) was determined over a range of differential pressures from 5 to 60 MPa, with respect to the predominant foliation. The ultrasonic velocity data followed a transversely isotropic pattern depending on the direction of wave propagation with respect to the laminations. The Poisson's ratio was found to rise by 5% as the shale material progressed from a normally pressured to an overpressured state. The quality factor ( Q ) characteristics were interpreted in terms of pore geometry and connectivity as well as the directional permeability of the transversely isotropic shale material. The results were converted to bulk and shear loss modulus defects, and a positive bulk loss was observed for waves propagating perpendicular to the lamination plane even above differential pressures of 20 MPa. This indicates different levels of Biot-flow and squirt-flow attenuation mechanisms acting within the shale structure, depending on the wave propagation and vibration directions.     

Near-surface attenuation modelling based on rock shear-wave velocity profile

In a previous study published in this journal, the authors developed a comprehensive methodology for modelling the shear wave velocity profile in crustal rock, for purposes of seismic hazard assessment. The derived shear wave velocity profile was used to estimate the amplification and attenuation mechanisms in the transmission of seismic waves. The ability to conduct seismic hazard assessments in regions of low and moderate seismicity is greatly enhanced by this new modelling approach, given that developing a local attenuation model based on curve-fitting strong motion data is generally not feasible under such conditions. This paper reports a follow-up study conducted to evaluate the significance of near-surface attenuation in bedrock (as distinct from attenuation in unconsolidated soft soil sediments). The κ parameter is used to characterize the extent of this attenuation mechanism. Empirical correlations of κ with two forms of near-surface shear wave velocity parameter in crustal rock have been developed, employing information obtained from global sources in conjunction with that from local studies. The resulting development of two simple equations to predict median values of κ as functions of readily available shear wave velocity parameters represents the key outcome of this study. Applications of the proposed empirical approaches to determine κ have been provided, taking Hong Kong and Melbourne as case studies to illustrate different aspects of the proposed methodology. Consistency between the results obtained by the two recommended approaches has thereby been demonstrated.     

Propagation of guided waves in a fluid layer bounded by two viscoelastic transversely isotropic solids

The analysis of Stoneley wave propagation in a fracture is essential for the identification and evaluation of fracture parameters from the borehole Stoneley wave. Also, it is important for many geophysics considerations, e.g. for tremor and long-period events observed in volcanoes and geothermal areas. In this paper, we investigate the guided waves propagation in a fluid layer lying between two viscoelastic vertically transversely isotropic media. The viscoelastic mechanism models the attenuation due to the presence of fluid saturation in the rock. A model based on the superposition of three inhomogeneous partial plane waves: one in the fluid and two heterogeneous waves in the solid is developed. The dispersion equation is obtained for this case. A numerical solution is carried out to obtain the guided wave velocity and attenuation coefficient. The results of this investigation show that there is a strong correlation between the velocity dispersion and attenuation of Stoneley wave and the anisotropic parameters of the medium especially in a sandstone (fast) medium.     

Poroelastic finite-difference modeling for ultrasonic waves in digital porous cores

Scattering attenuation in short wavelengths has long been interesting to geophysicists. Ultrasonic coda waves, observed as the tail portion of ultrasonic wavetrains in laboratory ultrasonic measurements, are important for such studies where ultrasonic waves interact with small-scale random heterogeneities on a scale of micrometers, but often ignored as noises because of the contamination of boundary reflections from the side ends of a sample core. Numerical simulations with accurate absorbing boundary can provide insight into the effect of boundary reflections on coda waves in laboratory experiments. The simulation of wave propagation in digital and heterogeneous porous cores really challenges numerical techniques by digital image of poroelastic properties, numerical dispersion at high frequency and strong heterogeneity, and accurate absorbing boundary schemes at grazing incidence. To overcome these difficulties, we present a staggered-grid high-order finite-difference (FD) method of Biot’s poroelastic equations, with an arbitrary even-order (2L) accuracy to simulate ultrasonic wave propagation in digital porous cores with strong heterogeneity. An unsplit convolutional perfectly matched layer (CPML) absorbing boundary, which improves conventional PML methods at grazing incidence with less memory and better computational efficiency, is employed in the simulation to investigate the influence of boundary reflections on ultrasonic coda waves. Numerical experiments with saturated poroelastic media demonstrate that the 2L FD scheme with the CPML for ultrasonic wave propagation significantly improves stability conditions at strong heterogeneity and absorbing performance at grazing incidence. The boundary reflections from the artificial boundary surrounding the digital core decay fast with the increase of CPML thicknesses, almost disappearing at the CPML thickness of 15 grids. Comparisons of the resulting ultrasonic coda Q _sc values between the numerical and experimental ultrasonic S waveforms for a cylindrical rock sample demonstrate that the boundary reflection may contribute around one-third of the ultrasonic coda attenuation observed in laboratory experiments.     

S wave attenuation based on Stokes boundary layer

Biot theory was based on two ideas: the coupling factor to quantify the kinetic energy of fluid and Darcy permeability to quantify the dissipation function. As Biot theory did not well predict attenuation of ultrasonic S wave, we modify the theory to better characterize the S wave attenuation. The range of the coupling factor is at first estimated in view of fluid mechanics. Application of the original theory to water-saturated Boise sandstone and brine-saturated Berea sandstone shows that the model prediction significantly underestimates the S wave attenuation ultrasonically measured. For this reason, we replace Darcy permeability with variable permeability to improve the fluid momentum equation. The new model yields predictions of phase velocity and the quality factor both close to the ultrasonic measurements. The reason why the improved model is superior to Biot theory is that variable permeability is based on the Stokes boundary layer at the fluid–solid interface, thus accurately quantifying the viscous stress between the two phases. Finally, the length scale of the viscous stress is calculated in the mesoscopic sense.     

孔、裂隙并存地层中的声波测井理论及多极子声场特征

在油、气储层的勘探和开发中观察到的一个现象是储层岩石中普遍存在孔隙和裂隙.随着近年来孔、裂隙介质弹性波动理论的进展,我们可以将此理论应用于测井技术,以此来指导从声波测井中测量孔、裂隙地层的声学参数.本文计算了孔、裂隙地层里充流体井眼中的多极子声场,分析了声场随裂隙介质的两个主要参数(即裂隙密度和裂隙纵横比)的变化特征.井孔声场的数值计算表明裂隙密度可以大幅度地降低井中声波纵、横波的波速和振幅.随着裂隙密度的增加,在测井频段内也可以看到纵、横波速的频散现象(这种频散在孔隙地层中一般是观察不到的).本文还研究了多极子模式波 (即单极的Stoneley波、伪瑞利波以及偶极的弯曲波)随裂隙参数的变化特征.结果表明,这些模式波的振幅激发和速度频散都受裂隙密度的影响.裂隙密度越高影响越大.此外,裂隙还对模式波的传播造成较大的衰减.相对裂隙密度而言,裂隙纵横比是一个频率控制参数,它控制裂隙对声场影响的频率区间.本文的分析结果对裂缝、孔隙型地层的声波测井具有指导意义.     

Characteristics of surface ground motions induced by blasts in jointed rock mass

An in-situ experimental program in a jointed rock mass was designed and implemented to investigate the rock joint effects on stress wave propagation. Accelerometers were placed on rock surface along three lines at 0, 45 and 90° to the predominant rock joint strike direction. Eight blasts were detonated in a charge hole drilled in the rock mass. The equivalent TNT blast weight ranged from 2.5 to 50.0 kg and the loading density (charge weight divided by the charge chamber volume) varied from 1 to 20.0 kg/m³. A fully coupled detonation with a charge weight of 25.0 kg was also exploded to study the coupling effect. The recorded data are presented and analyzed in this paper. The effects of rock joints on characteristics of stress wave propagation such as peak value attenuation, spectrum, and spatial variations are discussed.     

Caldera-scale inflation of the Lazufre volcanic area, South America: Evidence from InSAR

Collapsed calderas are the structural surface expression of the largest volcanic eruptions on Earth and may reach diameters of tens of kilometres while erupting volumes larger than 1000 km³. Remnants of collapse calderas can be found along the South American volcanic arc and are thought to be inactive. However, this study shows that systems of such dimension may become active in a relatively short period of time without attracting much attention. Using satellite-based InSAR data, a 45 km wide elongated area of ground deformation was observed in the Lazufre volcanic region (Chile), where no deformation was detected 10 years ago. The deformation signal shows an uplift of up to ~ 3 cm yr^− 1 during 2003–2006, affecting an area of about 1100 km², comparable in size to super-volcanoes such as Yellowstone or Long Valley. This deformation signal can be explained by an inflating magma body at about 10 km depth, expanding and propagating laterally at a velocity of up to 4 km per year. Although it is not clear whether this intrusion will lead to an eruption, its dimensions and the rapid deformation rate insinuate that a potentially large volcanic system is forming.     

Propagation characteristics of blast-induced shock waves in a jointed rock mass

The propagation characteristics of blast-induced shock waves in a jointed rock mass have been monitored and studied. Accelerometers were set up on a rock surface along three lines, at 0°, 45° and 90° with respect to the orientation of the predominant joint strikes. Cylindrical charges were detonated in a charge hole, and ground accelerations in both vertical and radial directions at various points on the rock surface were recorded. Results show that rock joints have significant effects on the propagation characteristics of blast-induced shock waves. The amplitude and principal frequency of shock waves attenuate with the increase of distance from the charge centre, and the increase of incident angle between the joint strike and the wave propagation path. The measured data were compared with the empirical equations of shock wave attenuation proposed by other authors. The mechanism of rock joint effect, the attenuation of shock waves in relation to the propagation distance, the charge weight and the incident angle, are discussed in this paper.     

不同性质岩块构成的样品破裂前的波速变化

用超声脉冲法研究了不同性质岩块构成的样品破裂前的波速变化。样品为长方形大理岩板,中心镶嵌大理岩、辉长岩、花岗岩,砂岩圆块。实验表明,样品破裂时裂纹穿过低强度镶嵌岩块而绕过高强度镶嵌岩块。在第一种场合样品破裂前,镶嵌岩块內波速变化显著,在第二种场合样品破裂前镶嵌岩块內波速变化不大。穿过两种岩石界面的波速测量表明,波速下降的起始点提前到样品破坏应力的60%左右。样品破裂前波速总的变化趋势是下降,但不是单调下降而呈现起伏。这说明介质不均匀性会对岩石破裂前的波速变化规律产生不可忽视的影响。      

Pore fluid viscosity effects on P‐ and S‐wave anisotropy in synthetic silica‐cemented sandstone with aligned fractures

Ultrasonic (500 kHz) P‐ and S‐wave velocity and attenuation anisotropy were measured in the laboratory on synthetic, octagonal‐shaped, silica‐cemented sandstone samples with aligned penny‐shaped voids as a function of pore fluid viscosity. One control (blank) sample was manufactured without fractures, another sample with a known fracture density (measured from X‐ray CT images). Velocity and attenuation were measured in four directions relative to the bedding fabric (introduced during packing of successive layers of sand grains during sample construction) and the coincident penny‐shaped voids (fractures). Both samples were measured when saturated with air, water (viscosity 1 cP) and glycerin (100 cP) to reveal poro‐visco‐elastic effects on velocity and attenuation, and their anisotropy. The blank sample was used to estimate the background anisotropy of the host rock in the fractured sample; the bedding fabric was found to show transverse isotropy with shear wave splitting (SWS) of 1.45 ± 1.18% (i.e. for S‐wave propagation along the bedding planes). In the fractured rock, maximum velocity and minimum attenuation of P‐waves was seen at 90° to the fracture normal. After correction for the background anisotropy, the fractured sample velocity anisotropy was expressed in terms of Thomsen's weak anisotropy parameters ε, γ & δ. A theory of frequency‐dependent seismic anisotropy in porous, fractured, media was able to predict the observed effect of viscosity and bulk modulus on ε and δ in water‐ and glycerin‐saturated samples, and the higher ε and δ values in air‐saturated samples. Theoretical predictions of fluid independent γ are also in agreement with the laboratory observations. We also observed the predicted polarisation cross‐over in shear‐wave splitting for wave propagation at 45° to the fracture normal as fluid viscosity and bulk modulus increases.     

Seismic evidence for a metastable olivine wedge in the subducting Pacific slab under Japan Sea

We apply a forward-modeling approach to high-quality arrival time data from 23 deep earthquakes greater than 400 km depth to investigate the detailed structure of the subducting Pacific slab beneath the Japan Sea. Our results show that a finger-like anomaly exists within the subducting Pacific slab below 400 km depth, which has a P-wave velocity 5% lower than the surrounding slab velocity (or 3% lower than that of the normal mantle), suggesting the existence of a metastable olivine wedge (MOW) in the slab. The MOW top and bottom depths are 400 and 560 km, respectively. The MOW is estimated to be about 50 km wide at 400 km depth and close to the slab upper boundary. At 560 km depth the MOW is located at about 25 km below the slab upper boundary. Most of the deep earthquakes are located in the MOW. Our results favor transformational faulting as the mechanism for deep earthquakes.     

Numerical simulation of internal solitary wave—induced reverse flow and associated vortices in a shallow,two-layer fluid benthic boundary layer

The wave-induced velocity and pressure fields beneath a large amplitude internal solitary wave of depression propagating over a smooth, flat, horizontal, and rigid boundary in a shallow two-layer fluid are computed numerically. A numerical ocean model is utilised, the set-up of which is designed and tuned to replicate the previously published experimental results of Carr and Davies (Phys Fluids 18(1):016,601–1–016,601–10, 2006). Excellent agreement is found between the two data sets and, in particular, the numerical simulation replicates the finding of a reverse flow along the bed aft of the wave. The numerically computed velocity and pressure gradients confirm that the occurrence of the reverse flow is a consequence of boundary layer separation in the adverse pressure gradient region. In addition, vortices associated with the reverse flow are seen to form near the bed.     

A seismic reflection from isotropic‐fractured fluid‐saturated layer

Average elastic properties of a fluid‐saturated fractured rock are discussed in association with the extremely slow and dispersive Krauklis wave propagation within individual fractures. The presence of the Krauklis wave increases P‐wave velocity dispersion and attenuation with decreasing frequency. Different laws (exponential, power, fractal, and gamma laws) of distribution of the fracture length within the rock show more velocity dispersion and attenuation of the P‐wave for greater fracture density, particularly at low seismic frequencies. The results exhibit a remarkable difference in the P‐wave reflection coefficient for frequency and angular dependency from the fractured layer in comparison with the homogeneous layer. The biggest variation in behaviour of the reflection coefficient versus incident angle is observed at low seismic frequencies. The proposed approach and results of calculations allow an interpretation of abnormal velocity dispersion, high attenuation, and special behaviour of reflection coefficients versus frequency and angle of incidence as the indicators of fractures.