Field Measurement of Suction, Water Content, and Water Permeability

This paper presents a review of techniques for field measurement of suction, water content, and water hydraulic conductivity (permeability). Main problems in the use of field tensiometers are addressed and hints on how to improve tensiometer performance are given. Advantages and limitations of instruments for indirect measurement of suction including electrical conductivity sensors, thermal conductivity sensors, dielectric permittivity sensors, filter paper, and psychrometer are discussed. Techniques for water content measurement based on dielectric methods are then presented. These include time and amplitude domain reflectometry and capacitance. Finally, a brief overview of methods for measurement of water permeability in the field is presented.     

非饱和成都黏土瞬时剖面法渗透性试验研究

非饱和渗透系数是土体渗流分析的基础,成都黏土作为一种典型的非饱和膨胀土,具有吸水膨胀、失水收缩的特性,在受侧限的浸水过程中,土颗粒的膨胀致使孔隙体积减小,渗透性降低,使得直接对其进行非饱和渗透试验十分困难。根据瞬时剖面法的原理,利用EC-5土壤水分传感器测含水率、MPS-2电介质水势传感器直接同步测量同一位置的基质吸力,通过水平渗透试验研究了非饱和成都黏土在侧限条件下的渗透性。含水率和基质吸力的同步测量,保证了其测试条件的一致性,避免了采用其他土水特征曲线的影响。试验表明,试样的非饱和渗透系数为（1.33×10-11~3.14×10-9）m·s-1,非饱和渗透系数与基质吸力并非单调线性关系。基质吸力较高时,受膨胀土颗粒吸水膨胀的影响,渗透系数未出现明显变化,基质吸力降低到一定程度后,渗透系数快速增大。试验结束时土体已接近饱和,土中气体排出较慢,过水断面增加缓慢,促使渗透系数仍然持续增大。采用VG模型拟合k-s曲线,拟合参数α=0.048 kPa-1,n=1.79,m=0.48,试验结果可以用于成都黏土地区的渗流分析。     

全吸力范围内渗透系数快速测定方法研究

非饱和土渗透系数函数跨越多个数量级,传统的测量方法动辄耗时数月,且难以实现全吸力范围内渗透系数的测量。为了实现全吸力范围内渗透系数的快速测量,将湿润锋前进法与瞬时剖面法相结合（简称联合测定方法）,利用自行研制的土柱入渗装置,开展了不同干密度条件下青海粉质黏土全吸力范围内渗透系数测量试验。试验结果表明：在联合测定方法中,湿润锋前进法适用于高吸力段（基质吸力ψ > 25 kPa）渗透系数的测量,瞬时剖面法则适用于低吸力段（基质吸力ψ ≤25 kPa）渗透系数的测量,且两种方法在吸力重叠范围内渗透系数测量结果基本一致。联合测定方法可将全吸力范围内渗透系数的测量时长压缩至一周左右,且精度良好。此外,还对两种试验方法的误差来源进行了分析与讨论。研究结果表明：联合测定方法能够实现全吸力范围内渗透系数的快速测量,有望使得非饱和土渗透系数的测量成为土力学的常规试验。     

冷镜露点技术在非饱和成都黏土吸力测试中的应用

冷镜露点技术是一种快速测试非饱和土吸力的间接方法。本文简要介绍了冷镜露点仪的工作原理和试验方法,利用Decagon公司生产的WP4C冷镜露点仪测试非饱和成都黏土压实土样的总吸力,以Van Genuchten模型为基础,结合Origin软件对试验结果进行了曲线拟合,得到成都黏土的SWCC曲线,并给出拟合参数参考值。借助CT-3031型电导率仪测得土样的渗透吸力,由基质吸力等于总吸力减去渗透吸力,间接得到土样的基质吸力-含水率关系曲线。对比滤纸法测试相同土样得到的SWCC曲线,得出相同含水率时冷镜露点技术测得的吸力值低于滤纸法测得的值,和国外文献的相关结论一致,验证了冷镜露点技术测试吸力具有快捷、方便、准确等特点。指出冷镜露点技术在非饱和成都黏土吸力测试应用中是可行的,同时可推广到国内岩土工程相关领域的吸力测试中。     

确定滤纸法试验平衡时间的数值模拟

滤纸法是一种测量非饱和土基质吸力的重要方法,而测量结果是否准确,控制滤纸法的试验时间非常重要.基于有限元数值分析软件SEEP/W,建立滤纸法的数值模型,分析滤纸法试验过程中的水分运移过程,研究非饱和黏土的水力参数、初始重力含水率、初始干密度等因素对滤纸法平衡时间的影响.结果表明,试验开始时,干燥滤纸会迅速吸水,随后滤纸与土样吸力才逐渐平衡,以含水率为判断标准得到的平衡时间T_w会小于以吸力为判断标准得到的平衡时间T_ψ,建议滤纸法的实际试验时间接近于T_ψ.滤纸法的平衡时间约为4～16 d,当土样饱和渗透系数较小时,滤纸法的平衡时间大大增加,平衡时间随土水特征参数a、n、饱和渗透系数、初始含水率及干密度的增大而减小,随饱和体积含水率的增加而增加.     

TRIME-TDR技术在黑河流域观测试验中的应用

TDR作为测量土壤水分的一种有效技术,已经广泛地应用到黑河流域各研究项目的野外观测试验中.在简要介绍TDR的发展、原理和类型等基本情况的基础上,着重分析了目前在黑河项目中应用较为广泛的德国IMKO公司的专利产品TRIME TDR的特性及其影响因子,并将其与传统的TDR、电容式水分测定仪、中子水分仪等土壤水分测量仪器进行了比较,分析了TRIME TDR的优缺点,提出了一些相关的建议和使用中应该注意的事项.     

Influence of Unsaturated Soil Properties Uncertainty on Moisture Flow Modeling

The quality of a numerical modeling solution of moisture flow through unsaturated soil, in part, depends on properly described unsaturated soil properties. The variability of the Soil Water Characteristic Curve, SWCC, is attributed to hysteresis and reproducibility of measurement. Because the unsaturated conductivity function is rarely directly measured, the variability of the unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity function is attributed to the uncertainty associated with the estimation of this parameter with currently available fitting functions, and hence a range of reasonable variation was considered. One-dimensional modeling of expansive soil under dry initial conditions (suction of 1,500 kPa) was performed; both potential evaporation and infiltration boundary conditions were considered. It was found that small variations in the unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity function result in significantly different modeling outputs, as expected, while substential variation in SWCC alone (assuming the same unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity for all SWCCs) produced almost identical soil response in terms of soil suction when the slope of the SWCC is similiar. Thus, proper characterization of the slope of the SWCC is important to proper suction profile determination.     

随机单裂隙饱和/非饱和渗透系数研究

裂隙易在降雨作用下诱发滑坡等灾害,裂隙的饱和/非饱和渗透特性是研究此类问题的关键。利用精密数控机床制作随机粗糙裂隙面,并研制了一套仪器进行此随机粗糙裂隙的渗流试验,得到了裂隙的饱和渗透系数,然后通过间接方法预测此裂隙的非饱和渗透系数。研究发现,当裂隙平均开度为0.4 mm时,其饱和渗透系数为0.1 m/s。通过立方定律得到的水力等效隙宽为0.35 mm,小于其平均隙宽。同时裂隙的渗透系数与平均隙宽的平方成正比,这与立方定律的趋势相一致。研究得到了不同隙宽裂隙的非饱和渗透系数函数,当基质吸力小于进气值时,渗透系数为一常数,即为饱和渗透系数;当基质吸力大于进气值时,裂隙板的渗透系数急剧减小。当裂隙板的基质吸力达到其残余含水率对应的吸力值时,裂隙板的渗透系数基本稳定。在此情况下,基质吸力的继续增加对渗透系数的影响非常小,很难使渗透系数减小。     

多孔矿物介质对有机相变材料导热性能的影响

通过对制备的基于膨胀多孔石墨和硅藻土两种多孔矿物介质与硬脂酸丁酯有机相变材料的相变蓄热复合材料,采用调制差示扫描量热方法(MDSC)测试复合材料的导热系数,并借助层状复合材料热传导模型分析多孔矿物介质内部结构特征对复合材料的导热性能的影响,其结果表明,采用膨胀多孔石墨制备的相变蓄热复合材料具有明显的层状结构,其压制方向的导热系数更接近层状复合材料热传导模型c轴方向导热系数预测结果;采用硅藻土制备的相变蓄热复合材料的导热系数符合层状复合材料热传导模型的a-b平面方向导热系数预测结果,说明该复合材料内部结构具有非常好的连通性。多孔矿物介质对相变材料导热系数的增强效果不仅受多孔矿物介质导热系数的影响,还会受到复合材料内部结构特征的明显影响,在热传导方向上形成连通性结构有利于增强效果,而形成与热传导方向垂直的层状结构则不利于导热系数的增强,即使多孔矿物介质具有很高的导热系数。     

基于连续分形理论的土壤非饱和水力传导度的研究

土壤的孔隙是具有连续分形性质的物理结构,根据土壤孔隙分形结构建立了非饱和水力传导度模型。模型包括综合系数、分形维数和临界体积比3个参数,综合系数为不同土壤基质势对应的非饱和水力传导度与饱和传导度之间的水力联系,与土壤质地有关;分形维数反映土壤孔隙结构对于非饱和水力传导度的作用,土壤不同尺寸孔隙之间的连通性则通过临界体积加以描述。模型具有较为明确的物理解释。将模型应用于5种不同土壤的结果表明,所提出的非饱和水力传导度模型具有较好的模拟效果。     

基于频域反射的细粒土压实度检测方法与误差评估

压实度是道路、房建、水利等工程领域评价土体压实质量的重要参数,与土体含水率和电导率密切相关。而频域反射技术(frequency domain reflectometry,FDR)可用于快速测定土体含水率和电导率。首先利用频域反射技术分别对多种压实状态下红黏土、膨胀土和黄土的含水率、电导率进行测量;然后对含水率测值进行室内标定,得到3种土的含水率标定曲线;通过偏最小二乘回归分析方法(partial least squares regression,PLSR)建立了3种土体的压实度-含水率-电导率之间的经验关系,并与实测值进行了对比分析;再根据扫描电子显微镜(scanning electron microscopy,SEM)和压汞法(mercury intrusion porosimetry,MIP)试验结果分析了其微观机制;最后对拟合公式得到的压实度预测值进行随机试样验证,建立与实测值的误差评估体系,结果表明基于压实度-含水率-电导率之间的关系而提出的拟合公式预测压实度的精度较高。相关研究可为道路、房建、水利等工程中土体压实度的快速检测提供参考。     

Application of a newly developed column test device to analyze seawater transport in sandy soils

To verify the applicability of the time-continuous electrical conductivity (EC) measurement in analyzing the contaminant movement in the subsurface, a new column test device employing non-destructive four-electrode sensors was developed. Using the seawater to create a simple one-dimensional steady-flow condition, laboratory transport experiments were conducted and the EC breakthrough curves at different distances were obtained. Comparison between the EC breakthrough curves obtained from the EC sensors and those from the effluent solute chemical analysis showed that the estimated resident concentration from the EC breakthrough curves are useful in understanding solute transport in soils. The pore water velocity and longitudinal dispersion coefficient estimated using the computer code, CXTFIT, were found to be slightly underestimated, especially at sensors located at smaller distances from the outlet boundary. Results showed that the developed column test device employing the four-electrode sensors proposed in this study provides a non-destructive, convenient, and inexpensive means of evaluating the seawater transporting in soils.     

Moisture Movement Through Cracked Clay Soil Profiles

A continuum mechanics approach is used for the formulation of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity functions and the water storage functions for fractured or cracked clay soils in this parametric study. Suggested procedures are based on available research literature related to the behavior of cracked unsaturated porous media. The soil–water characteristic curve, hydraulic conductivity and water storage functions take on the character of bi-modal unsaturated soil property functions. The bimodal character arises out of the independent behavior of the cracks and the intact clay soil. Matric suction changes beneath a slab-on-grade foundation placed on a cracked clay soil profile are modeled for varied surface flux conditions using the proposed unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and water storage functions. The impact of various levels of surface cracking on soil suction distributions is discussed. Suction distribution patterns are dependent on the initial soil surface suction. In particular, the results are dependent upon whether the initial matric suction is less than or greater than the air entry of the cracked clay. There is an extremely wide range of possible conditions that could be modeled but the parametric study results presented in this paper are limited to a series of selected crack widths and densities for an exfiltration case and an infiltration case.     

Fractal models for predicting soil hydraulic properties: a review

Modern hydrological models require information on hydraulic conductivity and soil-water retention characteristics. The high cost and large spatial variability of measurements makes the prediction of these properties a viable alternative. Fractal models describe hierarchical systems and are suitable to model soil structure and soil hydraulic properties. Deterministic fractals are often used to model porous media in which scaling of mass, pore space, pore surface and the size-distribution of fragments are all characterized by a single fractal dimension. Experimental evidence shows fractal scaling of these properties between upper and lower limits of scale, but typically there is no coincidence in the values of the fractal dimensions characterizing different properties. This poses a problem in the evaluation of the contrasting approaches used to model soil-water retention and hydraulic conductivity. Fractal models of the soil-water retention curve that use a single fractal dimension often deviate from measurements at saturation and at dryness. More accurate models should consider scaling domains each characterized by a fractal dimension with different morphological interpretations. Models of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity incorporate fractal dimensions characterizing scaling of different properties including parameters representing connectivity. Further research is needed to clarify the morphological properties influencing the different scaling domains in the soil-water retention curve and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. Methods to functionally characterize a porous medium using fractal approaches are likely to improve the predictability of soil hydraulic properties.     

快速测量非饱和土渗透系数的湿润锋前进法适用性研究

非饱和土渗透系数函数是非饱和土体渗流分析中必不可少的参数。然而非饱和土渗透系数函数测量非常困难,其中稳态法测量范围过于狭小,而瞬时截面法耗时动辄数月,难以应用。为此,提出了湿润锋前进法,有望在一周内测得渗透系数函数。采用数值模拟手段检验湿润锋前进法的测量精度和适用范围。数值模拟结果显示：对于砂土、粉土、黏土,湿润锋前进法得到的渗透系数函数均与输入的理论渗透曲线一致,但测量范围限于高吸力范围（大于进气值）。此外,还采用瞬时截面法计算了渗透系数函数,结果表明：瞬时截面法计算的渗透系数在理论渗透曲线附近波动,其精度取决于监测截面的间距,间距越大,精度越低。在给出的20、60、100 mm这3种间距中,20 mm间距时计算得到的渗透系数精度最高,但与湿润锋前进法的精度仍有一定差距。因此,湿润锋前进法是一种可靠的能够快速得到渗透系数函数的测量手段。     

考虑饱和度的压实填土抗剪强度研究

压实填土一般为典型的非饱和土,广泛存在于各类工程中,其物理力学性质受填土含水状态的影响。因基质吸力测量困难,非饱和土强度理论难以在压实填土工程中应用。研究含水状态变化对压实土抗剪强度影响的大小,寻找一种简化实用的非饱和压实土抗剪强度确定方法。从非饱和土理论出发,对含水状态影响压实土抗剪强度的机制进行了分析,重新整理并分析了5种压实土的非饱和三轴试验结果,对一些压实土工程资料中的直剪试验强度指标进行了收集和整理。分析表明,基质吸力对压实填土抗剪强度的贡献占有相当大的比例;含水率变化对压实填土抗剪强度的影响是非常显著和不容忽视的。工程资料中压实土饱和度对数值与黏聚力指标有良好的线性相关关系,提出了一个考虑饱和度影响的压实填土抗剪强度简易计算方法。     

高铁路基粗颗粒土水力学参数测试方法研究

高铁路基粗颗粒土的水力学特性对路基内部水分运移及路基的长期累积变形有重要影响。而对这种高压实度的粗颗粒土,常规非饱和土试验仪器存在试样尺寸小、制样难度大的缺点,难以应用。介绍了一种用于测试高压实度路基粗颗粒土-水力学参数的试验装置,利用张力计和时域反射计量器,分别测量路基粗颗粒土在浸湿、干燥阶段不同高度处土体基质吸力、介电常数的变化情况,获得高压实度下高铁路基粗颗粒土土-水特征曲线;并通过瞬态剖面法获得路基粗颗粒土非饱和渗透系数与基质吸力的关系。试验结果表明,该套装置能够适用于最大粒径为20 mm的粗颗粒土,试样压实度最大可达到0.95。通过对一组试验结果分析,并结合Ekblad等试验结果,发现随着填料细颗粒含量增大,?（与进气值有关的参数）值逐渐减小,土体进气值增加;粒径越大,细颗粒含量越低,土体储水能力越低,对应n（与排水程度有关的参数）值越大。为路基粗颗粒土-水力学参数的测定提供了方法。     

青藏高原含砂砾石土壤导热率实验研究

土壤导热率是土壤的基本物理参数之一,也是陆面模式的重要输入量,对研究土壤热传输、水热耦合运移有重要意义。青藏高原由于独特的地理环境备受学者关注,但目前常用的土壤水、热属性参数化方案仅仅考虑了沙土、粉土和黏土,就砂砾石重要性的认识还不足,很少有模式模拟砾石对青藏高原多年冻土和高寒草地的影响。采用便携式热导仪（KD2 Pro,DECAGON,美国）测量了青藏高原玛多和北麓河两地典型土壤在冻结和未冻结状态下不同水分条件时的土壤导热率,分析了砂砾石含量对土壤孔隙度的影响及冻结和未冻结状态下,不同水分条件下砂砾石含量对土壤导热率的影响。结果表明：当含水量高于某一阈值时,含水土壤冻结状态下的导热率高于未冻结状态下的导热率;土壤含水量对土壤导热率影响显著,导热率随着含水量的增加而增大,在含水量较小时变化更明显;砂砾石含量比重多的土壤孔隙度较小,且砂砾石含量越大的土壤在冻结状态下导热率高。以上结果表明,砂砾石对土壤导热率有显著影响,在将来的模式模拟研究中必须考虑砂砾石对土壤热属性的影响,进而提高土壤水热过程模拟的精度。     

Humidity transfer in unsaturated heterogeneous porous media by homogenization

In the paper the one-equation model of humidity transfer in unsaturated macroscopically heterogeneous porous media is presented. The homogenization method by two-scale asymptotic expansions is used to derive the upscaled form of the Richard equation, which is commonly used when the medium is considered as macroscopically homogeneous. This equation is highly non-linear due to the pressure-dependence of the hydrodynamic characteristics of the porous medium. The domain of validity of the model is explicitly given, namely: the length-scales separation, the characteristic time scale condition and the ratio of the hydrodynamic characteristics being of the same orders of magnitude. The effective capillary capacity and the effective hydraulic conductivity for an equivalent continuum are defined in terms of geometry and local hydrodynamic characteristics of the porous medium. A procedure of determination of the effective suction curve and the effective hydraulic conductivity curve as functions of the average water content for any type of the macroscopic heteregeneity for which the method can be applied, is provided. Since the problem is non-linear this procedure involves the resolution of a local boundary value problem formulated over a period for each value of suction. In two or three-dimensional cases, this problem can be solved using the numerical methods for any geometry of the medium. In a one-dimensional case it was shown that the analytical solution gives the well-known results of harmonic and arithmetic mean.