民勤土地利用格局时空变化研究

应用1987年和2010年两期TM遥感数据,在GIS技术的支撑下,解译提取民勤县土地利用类型空间分布信息,用FRAGSTATS3.3软件计算斑块类型和景观两个层次的7个景观格局指数,分析民勤县土地利用类型空间转化特点和质心转移趋势。结果表明：（1）23年间,民勤县土地利用类型转换明显,戈壁、耕地面积增加,草地面积减少,林地部分退化。（2）土地类型多样性和均匀度减小、聚集度增加,表明人类活动对民勤县土地利用影响大,土地利用结构受个别土地类型影响程度加深、稳定性下降。（3）民勤县土地利用质心整体向西南方向偏移,沙漠、耕地质心向西南方向偏移明显,沙进人退的趋势显著。     

Source process and tectonic implications of the great 1975 North Atlantic earthquake

Summary. The Atlantic segment of the Africa–Europe plate boundary has usually been interpreted as a transform boundary on the basis of the bathymetric expression of the Gloria fault and dextral strike-slip first-motion mechanisms aligned along the Azores–Gibraltar line of seismicity. The 1975 May 26 earthquake ( M _s=7.9) was assumed to fit into this framework because it occurred in the general area of this line and has a similar first-motion focal mechanism (strike=288°, dip=72°, slip angle=184°). However, several anomalies cast doubt on this picture: the event is abnormally large for an oceanic transform event; a sizeable tsunami was excited; the aftershock area is unusually small for such a large event; and most significantly, the epicentre is 200 km south of the presumed plate boundary. The Rayleigh wave radiation pattern indicates a change in focal mechanism to one with a significant dip-slip component. The short duration of the source time history (20 s, as deconvolved from long-period P -waves), the lack of directivity in the Rayleigh waves, and the small one-day aftershock area suggest a fault length less than 80 km. One nodal plane of the earthquake is approximately aligned with the trace of an ancient fracture zone.
We have compared the Pasadena 1-90 record of the 1975 earthquake to that of the 1941 North Atlantic strike-slip earthquake (200 km to the NNW) and confirmed the large size of the 1941 event ( M =8.2). The non-colinear relationship of the 1975 and 1941 events suggests that there is no well-defined plate boundary between the Azores and Gibraltar. This interpretation is supported by the intraplate nature of both the 1975 event and the large 1969 thrust event 650 km to the east. This study also implies that the largest oceanic strike-slip earthquakes occur in old lithosphere in a transitional tectonic regime.     

Spatio-temporal analysis of the geographical centroids for three major crops in China from 1949 to 2014

Spatial distribution changes in major crops can reveal important information about cropping systems. Here, a new centroid method that applies physics and mathematics to spatial pattern analysis in agriculture is proposed to quantitatively describe the historical centroids of rice, maize and wheat in China from 1949 to 2014. The geographical centroids of the rice area moved 413.39 km in a 34.32° northeasterly (latitude 3.08°N, longitude 2.10°E) direction at a speed of 6.36 km/year from central Hunan province to Hubei province, while the geographical centroids of rice production moved 509.26 km in the direction of 45.44° northeasterly (latitude 3.22°N, longitude 3.27°E) at a speed of 7.83 km/year from central Hunan province to Henan province. The geographical centroids of the maize area and production moved 307.15 km in the direction of 34.33° northeasterly (latitude 2.29°N, longitude 1.56°E) and 308.16 km in the direction of 30.79° northeasterly (latitude 2.39°N, longitude 1.42°E), respectively. However, the geographical centroids of the wheat area and production were randomly distributed along the border of Shanxi and Henan provinces. We divided the wheat into spring wheat and winter wheat and found that the geographical centroids of the spring wheat area and production were distributed within Inner Mongolia, while the geographical centroids of winter wheat were distributed in Shanxi and Henan provinces. We found that the hotspots of crop cultivation area and production do not always change concordantly at a larger, regional scale, suggesting that the changing amplitude and rate of each crops’ yield differ between different regions in China. Thus, relevant adaptation measures should be taken at a regional level to prevent production damage in those with increasing area but decreasing production.     

S to P scattering at the 650 km discontinuity

Summary. A search of seismograms recorded at the Warramunga seismic array (WRA) from events occurring below the Izu-Bonin Islands shows an arrival on some, but not all, of the records, with an onset at 25–30 s after P , which is not predicted by the standard travel-time tables. The slowness and azimuth of the phase show that it is generated almost in line with P , and the variation of arrival time with the hypocentral depth of the earthquake indicates that its origin lies on the receiver side of the source. It appears, in fact, to be an S to P conversion at a depth of 650–700 km, which is seen only when the receiver is close to a node of the P radiation pattern and an antinode for S so that its amplitude compared with that of P is at a maximum.
Finally, the duration of the phase indicates that it is not simply a refracted wave, but that it has a coda of scattered arrivals from lateral heterogeneity in the neighbourhood of 650 km below the Izu-Bonin Islands.     

Aftershock tectonics of the 1978 Tabas-e-Golshan (Iran) earthquake sequence: a documented active 'thin-and thick-skinned tectonic' case

Summary. In this study a locally recorded aftershock sequence of the 1978 Tabas-e-Golshan earthquake ( M_s = 7.4) was accurately located. Out of 1560 located events, 329 best-located aftershocks passed a strict quality criterion. These well-located aftershocks, which have uncertainties in epicentre and in focal depth of about 1 and 2 km respectively, together with the well-constrained focal mechanisms, provided a detailed picture of active continental deformation during an aftershock sequence.
Almost all aftershocks follow very closely the pattern of the earthquake faults at the surface and lie in the hanging-wall block of the active fault. The hypocentres occurred mainly at depths less than 23 km with a high concentration of seismic activity between 8–14 km depth. The aftershocks clearly demonstrate an active imbricate listric thrust system with fault planes flattening into a basement decollement zone, and the reactivation of different basement reverse faults in response to a considerable amount of shortening of the top sedimentary cover. The sense of motion was almost universally thrusting and the aftershocks shared the same tectonic causes as the main shock.
The study indicates that the development of the young fold-thrust mountain belts necessarily involves basement shortening (thin-and thick-skinned tectonics) and that the 'frontal reverse faults' in young active fold-thrust mountain belts are the most seismically active faults. Geological and seismic data propose that the active frontal reverse fault systems are possibly reactivated old normal faults and may add support to the contention of reversal of fault motion during re thickening of continental crust. The active 'thin-and thick-skinned tectonics' documented in this study may prevail in other young and active fold-thrust mountain belts which are characterized by a thick sequence of telescoped top sedimentary cover over a decollement detachment zone.     

基于RS与GIS的科尔沁沙地沙漠化时空演变

以2000年ETM+影像、2005年和2010年TM影像为数据源,在遥感（RS）与地理信息系统（GIS）技术的支持下,通过人机交互解译,对科尔沁沙地的沙漠化土地分布状况及其动态变化进行了分析研究。结果表明：①2000-2010年研究区沙漠化土地总体呈逆转的趋势,且从严重沙漠化土地向轻度沙漠化土地逐级逆转,沙漠化土地总面积从2000年的31 762.11 km2减少到2010年的30 198.87 km2,净减少量1 563.24 km2,减少速率为156.32 km2·a-1。从沙漠化类型来看,除轻度沙漠化土地增加外,其他类型沙漠化土地面积均明显下降;②2000-2010年沙漠化土地持续逆转区域主要集中分布在治理强度较大的奈曼旗、库伦旗和扎鲁特旗;③严重沙漠化土地比较稳定,中度和轻度沙漠化土地重心空间迁移比较明显,2000-2010年中度沙漠化土地重心向西北方向移动23.65 km,轻度沙漠化土地重心向南移动19.31 km。     

A detailed analysis of the February 1996 aftershock sequence in the eastern Pyrenees, France

Following the 1996 February 18 M _L = 5.2 earthquake in the Agly massif in the eastern French Pyrenees, we installed a temporary network of seismometers around the epicentre. In this paper, we analyse 336 well-located aftershocks recorded from February 19 to February 23 by 18 temporary stations and two permanent stations located less than 35  km from the epicentre. Most aftershocks have been located with an accuracy better than 1.5  km in both horizontal and vertical positions. Their spatial distribution suggests the reactivation of a known fault system. We determined 39 fault-plane solutions using P -wave first motions. Despite their diversity, the focal mechanisms yield an E–W subhorizontal T-axis. We also determined fault-plane solutions and principal stress axes using the method developed by Rivera & Cisternas (1990 ) for the 15 best-recorded events. We obtain a pure-shear-rupture tectonic regime under N–S subhorizontal compression and E–W subhorizontal extension. These principal stress axes, which explain the focal mechanisms for at least 75 per cent of the 39 aftershocks, are different from the axes deduced from the main shock. The post-earthquake stress field caused by the main-shock rupture, modelled as sinistral strike slip on three vertical fault segments, is computed for various orientations and magnitudes of the regional stress field, assumed to be horizontal. The aftershock distribution is best explained for a compressive stress field oriented N30°E. Most aftershocks concentrate where the Coulomb failure stress change increases by more than 0.2  MPa. The diversity of aftershock focal mechanisms, poorly explained by this model, may reflect the great diversity in the orientations of pre-existing fractures in the Agly massif.     

A geomagnetic precursor to the 1979 Carlisle earthquake

Summary. A study of horizontal field transfer functions, in the period range 10–10⁴s, has been made for the 2 yr period preceding the 1979 Carlisle earthquake (magnitude 5). The study using two sites, local to and remote from the earthquake epicentre, reveals that a precursory effect is observed at short periods (<10²s) some 35 km from the main epicentre. The results indicate a change from two-dimensional geolectric anisotropy to a more conductive three-dimensional geoelectric configuration during the period immediately preceding the earthquake.     

Derivation of a resilient polygon centroid for natural resource management applications

This paper reviews the utility of polygon centroid algorithms for natural resource management applications. Following a review of ‘standard’ centroid derivation algorithms, and their limitations, alternative approaches are proposed. Building upon current polygon-reduction algorithms an iterative edge-erosion model is presented. Resilient centroids derived via this model are shown to: (1) maximise the distance to all internal and external edges; (2) be located within the polygon boundary; and (3) be insensitive to patch vertex outliers.

The resilient centroid is demonstrated to have utility in a range of natural resource management applications including the matching of disparate data sources. Exemplar studies conclude that resilient centroids support an appropriate allocation of vegetation condition point samples both within and between native vegetation patches. Further, the utilisation of resilient centroids enables the (1) sub-division of vegetation patches into homogenous regions (core areas) and (2) interrogation of the relationship between vegetation condition and core area proximity.     

Anisotropy of heterogeneity scale lengths in the lower mantle from PKIKP precursors

The anisotropy of heterogeneity scale lengths in the lower mantle is investigated by modelling its effect on the high-frequency precursors of PKIKP scattered by the heterogeneities. Although models having either an isotropic or an anisotropic distribution of scale lengths can fit the observed coda shapes of short-period precursors, the frequency content of broad-band PKIKP precursors favours a dominantly isotropic distribution of scale lengths. Precursor coda shapes are consistent with 1 per cent fluctuations in P velocity in the wavenumber band 0.05–0.5  km⁻¹ extending to 1000  km above the core–mantle boundary, and with a D" region open to circulation throughout the lower mantle. The level of excitation of PKIKP precursors observed in the frequency band 0.02–2  Hz requires a power spectrum of heterogeneity that is nearly white or slowly increasing with wavenumber. Anisotropy of scale lengths may exist in a D" layer having larger horizontal than vertical scale lengths and produce little or no detectable effects on PKIKP precursors for P -velocity perturbations as high as 3 per cent when averaged over a vertical scale of several kilometres, and much higher when averaged over scales of hundreds of metres or less.     

Small-scale heterogeneities below the Gräfenberg array, Germany from seismic wavefield fluctuations of Hindu Kush events

Small-scale elastic heterogeneities (<5  km) are found in the upper lithosphere underneath the Gräfenberg array, southeast Germany. The results are based on the analysis of broadband recordings of 17 intermediate-depth (201–272  km) events from the Hindu Kush region. The wavefront of the first P arrival and the following 40  s coda are separated into coherent and incoherent (scattered) parts in the frequency range from 0.05 to 5  Hz. The frequency-dependent intensities of the mean and fluctuation wavefields are used to describe the scattering characteristics of the lithosphere underneath the receivers. It is possible to discriminate a weak-fluctuation regime of the wavefield in the frequency range below approximately 1.5–2.5  Hz and a strong-fluctuation regime starting at 2.0–2.5  Hz and continuing to higher frequencies. In order to explain the observed wavefield fluctuations, an approach with seismic scattering at random media-type structures is proposed. The preferred model contains heterogeneities with 3–7 per cent perturbations in seismic velocity and correlation lengths of 0.6–4.8  km in the crust. This is compatible with models from active seismic experiments. Scattering in the lithospheric mantle is not required, but cannot be excluded at weak velocity contrasts (<3 per cent).     

Source tomography by simulated annealing using broad-band surface waves and geodetic data: application to the Mw= 8.1 Chile 1995 event

We invert surface-wave and geodetic data for the spatio-temporal complexity of slip during the M _w =8.1 Chile 1995 event by simulated annealing. This quasi-global inversion method allows for a wide exploration of model space, and retains the non-linearity of the source tomography problem. Complex source spectra are obtained from 5 to 45 mHz from first- and second-orbit fundamental-mode Rayleigh waves using an empirical Green's function cross-correlation technique. Coseismic displacement vectors were measured at 10 GPS sites near Antofagasta. They are part of a French-Chilean experiment which monitors the Northern Chile seismic gap. The spectra, together with the geodetic data, are inverted for the moment distribution on a 2-D dipping fault, under the physical constraints of slip positivity and causality. Marginal a posteriori distributions of the model parameters are obtained from several independently inverted solutions. In general, features of the slip model are well resolved. Data are well fitted by a purely unilateral southward rupture with a nearly uniform velocity around 2.5–3.0 km s⁻¹, and a total duration of 65 s. Several regions of moment release were imaged, one near the hypocentre, a major one 80 km south of it and a minor one 160 km south of it. The major patch of moment release seemed to have propagated to relatively shallow depths near the trench, 100 km SSW of the epicentre. The region of major slip is located updip of the 1987, M _w =7.5 earthquake, suggesting a causal relationship. Most of the slip occurred updip of the hypocentre (36 km), but the entire coupled plate interface (20–40 km) ruptured during the Chile 1995 event.     

Thrust faulting and crust—upper mantle structure in East Australia

Summary. The mid-crustal earthquake of 1973 March 9 (m_b= 5.5, h ≤ 20 km) located 60 km south-west of Sydney, Australia, provides unambiguous evidence of contemporary thrust faulting in South-eastern Australia — a region of high heat flow and Cenozoic basaltic volcanism. Aftershock locations suggest a steeply dipping fault in the depth range from 8 to 24 km with a lateral extent of about 8 km. The mechanism solution is consistent with a tectonic stress field that is dominated by east—west horizontal compression. A seismic moment of 5.7 ± 10²³± 20 per cent dyne-cm was computed from surface-wave amplitudes. Minimum values of slip and stress drop, 2 cm and 1 bar respectively, were estimated from the moment and a fault size taken' from aftershock locations.
Refinement modelling by a controlled Monte Carlo technique was used to provide unbiased models directly from multimode group velocities. The dispersion of fundamental and higher mode surface waves recorded at the digital high-gain station at Charters Towers, Queensland, and the WWSSN station at Adelaide, South Australia, is satisfied by crust- and upper-mantle models which have neither pronounced S-wave low-velocity zones nor thick high-velocity lids within 140 km of the Earth's surface. These models have subcrustal shear velocities of 4.20–4.32 km/s which are 0.4–0.5 km/s slower than Canadian shield shear velocities (CANSD).     

Resolution and significance assessment of precursory changes in mean earthquake magnitudes

The Loma Prieta earthquake (magnitude 7.0), which occurred in October 1989 in central California, was preceded by a period during which the mean magnitude of background seismicity in a small region near the eventual epicentre was abnormally low. This period may have begun as early as 1979, and it continued until mid-1988, after which the mean magnitude increased to a higher than normal value until the main earthquake. These changes were observed in the seismicity of an area 40  km in radius, centred on the Loma Prieta epicentre, and are consistent with the predictions of fracture mechanics studies. The 1988 change correlates with a reported change in long-term strain.
  A procedure has been developed for resolving such temporal changes in seismicity using CUSUM statistics. It demonstrates that the anomaly was highly significant, on the basis of analyses of two independent catalogues. There was also a significant anomaly before the 1994 Northridge earthquake.
  The hypothesis that large earthquakes are preceded by periods in which the mean magnitude of background activity is abnormally low, in the immediate vicinity of the eventual epicentre, is a tantalizing one. The analysis tool examined here may be useful for resolving such changes. Care needs to be taken, however, in routine surveillance of earthquake populations that contain large aftershock sequences.     

Imaging crustal discontinuities and the downgoing slab beneath western Crete

The migration of teleseismic receiver functions yields high-resolution images of the crustal structure of western Crete. Data were collected during two field campaigns in 1996 and 1997 by networks of six and 47 short-period three-component seismic stations, respectively. A total of 1288 seismograms from 97 teleseismic events were restituted to true ground displacement within a period range from 0.5 to 7 s. The application of a noise-adaptive deconvolution filter and a new polarization analysis technique helped to overcome problems with local coda and noise conditions. The computation and migration of receiver functions results in images of local crustal structures with unprecedented spatial resolution for this region. The crust under Crete consists of a continental top layer of 15–20 km thickness above a 20–30 km thick subducted fossil accretionary wedge with a characteristic en echelon fault sequence. The downgoing oceanic Moho lies at a depth of 40–60 km and shows a topography or undulation with an amplitude of several kilometres. As a consequence of slab depth and distribution of local seismicity, the Mediterranean Ridge is interpreted as the recent accretionary wedge.     

Comment on 'Systematic determination of earthquake rupture directivity and fault planes from analysis of long-period P-wave spectra' by L. M. Warren and P. M. Shearer

Warren and Shearer describe a method of estimating the duration of P pulses radiated by earthquakes, on the assumption that the source is a unilateral fracture. The estimates are made in the frequency domain. The estimates obtained by Warren and Shearer for seven of the earthquakes are compared to durations estimated here in the time domain; the time-domain measurements being made on broad-band seismograms (∼0.1–4.0 Hz) derived by filtering from short-period recordings. Overall, the time-domain method indicates that the pulse duration of the earthquakes studied here range from 2.0 to 7.6 s, whereas the estimates from the results of Warren and Shearer range from 7.1 to 9.8 s. This suggests that the method of Warren and Shearer cannot resolve pulse lengths less than about 7 s. The suggestion is supported by the estimates of the duration of rupture—fault length/speed of rupture—implied by the results of Warren and Shearer. For, although the estimated fault-length ranges from 0.8 km to over 40 km most rupture durations are around 8 s.     

State of stress in the Southern Tyrrhenian subduction zone from fault-plane solutions

In this paper we present revised locations and original focal mechanisms computed for intermediate and deep earthquakes that occurred within the Southern Tyrrhenian subduction zone between 1988 and 1994, in order to improve our knowledge of the state of stress for this compressional margin. In particular, we define the stress distribution within a large portion of the descending slab, between 40 and about 450 km depth. The seismicity distribution reveals a continuous 40–50 km thick slab that abruptly increases its dip from subhorizontal in the Ionian Sea to a constant 70° dip in the Tyrrhenian. We computed focal mechanisms for events with magnitudes ranging from 2.7 and 5.7, obtaining the distribution of P - and T -axes for many events for which centroid moment tensor (CMT) solutions are not available, thus enabling the sampling of a larger depth range compared to previous studies. We define three portions of the slab characterized by different distributions of P - and T -axes. A general down-dip compression is found between 165 and 370 km depth, whereas in the upper part of the slab (40–165 km depth) the fault-plane solutions are strongly heterogeneous. Below 370 km the P -axes of the few deep events located further to the north have a shallower dip and are not aligned with the 70° dipping slab, possibly suggesting that they belong to a separated piece of subducted lithosphere. There is a good correspondence between the depth range in which the P -axes plunge closer to the slab dip (∼ 70°) and the interval characterized by the highest seismic energy release (190–370 km).     

A test of the precursory accelerating moment release model on some recent New Zealand earthquakes

The proposal that the moment release rate increases in a systematic way in a large region around a forthcoming large earthquake is tested using three recent, large New Zealand events. The three events, 1993–1995, magnitudes 6.7–7.0, occurred in varied tectonic settings. For all three events, a circular precursory region can be found such that the moment release rate of the included seismicity is modelled significantly better by the proposed accelerating model than by a linear moment release model, although in one case the result is dubious. The 'best' such regions have radii from 122 to 167 km, roughly in accord with previous observations world-wide, but are offset by 50–60 km from the associated main shock epicentre. A grid-search procedure is used to test whether these three earthquakes could have been forecast using the accelerating moment release model. For two of the earthquakes the result is positive in terms of location, but the main shock times are only loosely constrained.     

Shear wave anisotropy in the crust around the San Andreas fault near Parkfield: spatial and temporal analysis

We systematically analysed shear wave splitting (SWS) for seismic data observed at a temporary array and two permanent networks around the San Andreas Fault (SAF) Observatory at Depth. The purpose was to investigate the spatial distribution of crustal shear wave anisotropy around the SAF in this segment and its temporal behaviour in relation to the occurrence of the 2004 Parkfield M 6.0 earthquake. The dense coverage of the networks, the accurate locations of earthquakes and the high-resolution velocity model provide a unique opportunity to investigate anisotropy in detail around the SAF zone. The results show that the primary fast polarization directions (PDs) in the region including the SAF zone and the northeast side of the fault are NW–SE, nearly parallel or subparallel to the SAF strike. Some measurements on the southwest side of the fault are oriented to the NNE–SSW direction, approximately parallel to the direction of local maximum horizontal compressive stress. There are also a few areas in which the observed fast PDs do not fit into this general pattern. The strong spatial variations in both the measured fast PDs and time delays reveal the extreme complexity of shear wave anisotropy in the area. The top 2–3 km of the crust appears to contribute the most to the observed time delays; however substantial anisotropy could extend to as deep as 7–8 km in the region. The average time delay in the region is about 0.06 s. We also analysed temporal patterns of SWS parameters in a nearly 4-yr period around the 2004 Parkfield main shock based on similar events. The results show that there are no appreciable precursory, coseismic, or post-seismic temporal changes of SWS in a region near the rupture of an M 6.0 earthquake, about 15 km away from its epicentre.     

The methodology of quantification of volcanic explosions from broad-band seismic signals and its application to the 2004–2005 explosions at Volcán de Colima, Mexico

A methodology is proposed for the quantification of volcanic explosions based on three parameters derived from broad-band seismic signals: the counter force of the eruption F , the power of the explosion P and the duration of the upward movement of the gas slug in the conduit to the free surface of magma, D . This methodology was applied to the 2004–2005 sequence of explosions at Volcán de Colima, Mexico. The broad-band records of more than 100 explosive events were obtained at a distance of 4 km from the crater. We determined the counter force of the eruption by modelling the low-frequency impulse of the seismic records of 66 volcanic explosions and estimated the power of 116 explosions from the spectra of the high-frequency impulse. The power of Colima explosions spans five orders of magnitude; the counter force spans four orders of magnitude. We show that the power of a volcanic explosion is proportional to the counter force of the eruption. These parameters may be used for the elaboration of a scale of volcanic explosions.