Hit or miss: Glacial incisions of snowball Earth

Estimated at ~58 Ma in duration, the Sturtian snowball Earth (ca. 717–659 Ma) is one of the longest‐known glaciations in Earth history. Surprisingly few uncontroversial lines of evidence for glacial incisions associated with such a protracted event exist. We report here multiple lines of geological field evidence for deep but variable glacial erosion during the Sturtian glaciation. One incision, on the scale of several kilometres, represents the deepest incision documented for snowball Earth; another much more modest glacial valley, however, suggests an erosion rate similar to sluggish Quaternary glaciers. The heterogeneity in snowball glacial incisions reported here and elsewhere was likely influenced by actively extending horst‐and‐graben topography associated with the breakup of supercontinent Rodinia.     

The break-up of Rodinia,birth of Gondwana,true polar wander and the snowball Earth

A major global plate reorganisation occurred between ∼750 and ∼550 Ma. Gondwana was assembled following the dispersal of Rodinia, a supercontinent centred on Laurentia in existence since ∼1050 Ma. The reorganisation began when tectonic elements, later composing East Gondwana, rotated piecemeal away from the Pacific margin of Laurentia. These elements swept across the ancestral Pacific (Mozambique) Ocean that lay between Laurentia and the combined African cratons of Congo and Kalahari, which were loosely joined after ∼820 Ma. Simultaneously, the Adamastor (Brasilide) Ocean closed by subduction bordering the West Gondwana cratons, drawing virtually all of Gondwana together by ∼550 Ma. The final assembly of Gondwana occurred contemporaneously with the separation of Laurentia from West Gondwana.It has been postulated that the imprint of Rodinia's long-lived existence on lower mantleconvection produced a prolate ellipsoidal geoid figure. This could give rise to episodic inertial interchange true polar wander (IITPW), meaning that the entire silicate shell of the Earth (above the core-mantle boundary) rolled through 90° with respect to the diurnal spin axis in ∼15 Ma (equivalent to an apparent polar wander velocity of ∼66 cm a⁻¹. Although empirical arguments for IITPW of Cambrian age appear to be flawed, evidence for an ultra-fast ( > 40 cm a⁻¹) meridional component of apparent polar wander for Laurentia between 564 and 550 Ma suggests that IITPW might have occurred at that time.The break-up of Rodinia increased the continental margin area and preferential organic C burial globally, which is reflected by high δ¹³C values in seawater proxies. The consequent drawdown of CO₂ is implicated in a succession of runaway ice-albedo catastrophes between ∼750 and ∼570 Ma, during each of which the oceans completely froze over. Each “snowball” Earth event must have lasted for millions of years because their terminations depended on extreme CO₂ levels, built up by subaerial volcanic outgassing in the absence of sinks for C. A succession of ice-albedo catastrophes, each terminated under ultra-greenhouse conditions, must have imposed an intense environmental filter on the evolution of life. They may have triggered the radiation of Ediacaran fauna in the aftermath of the final snowball event. It is increasingly recognised that the Late Neoproterozoic was one of the most remarkable periods in Earth history, and it appears to exemplify the interplay of tectonics, the environment and biology in deep time.     

Stratigraphic and tectonic settings of Proterozoic glaciogenic rocks and banded iron-formations: relevance to the snowball Earth debate

Among Palaeoproterozoic glacial deposits on four continents, the best preserved and documented are in the Huronian on the north shore of Lake Huron, Ontario, where three glaciogenic formations have been recognized. The youngest is the Gowganda Formation. The glacial deposits of the Gowganda Formation were deposited on a newly formed passive margin. To the west, on the south side of Lake Superior, the oldest Palaeoproterozoic succession (Chocolay Group) begins with glaciogenic diamictites that have been correlated with the Gowganda Formation. The >2.2 Ga passive margin succession (Chocolay Group=upper Huronian) is overlain, with profound unconformity, by a >1.88 Ga succession that includes the superior-type banded iron-formations (BIFs). The iron-formations are therefore not genetically associated with Palaeoproterozoic glaciation but were deposited 300 Ma later in a basin that formed as a result of closure of the “Huronian” ocean. In Western Australia, Palaeoproterozoic glaciogenic deposits of the Meteorite Bore Member appear to have formed part of a similar basin fill. The glaciogenic rocks are, however, separated from underlying BIF by a thick siliciclastic succession. In both North America and Western Australia, BIF-deposition took place in compressional (possibly foreland basin) settings but the iron-formations are of greatly different age, suggesting that the most significant control on their formation was not oxygenation of the Earth’s atmosphere but rather, emplacement of Fe-rich waters (uplifted as a result of ocean floor destruction?) in a siliciclastic-starved environment where oxidation (biogenic?) could take place. Some of the Australian BIFs appear to predate the appearance of red beds in North American Palaeoproterozoic successions and are therefore unlikely to be related to oxygenation of the atmosphere.Neoproterozoic glaciogenic deposits are widespread on the world’s continents. Some are associated with iron-formations. Two theories have emerged to explain these enigmatic BIFs. According to the snowball Earth hypothesis (SEH), ice-covered oceans would have permitted buildup of dissolved Fe. Precipitation of Fe-rich sediments would have taken place following reoxygenation of the hydrosphere as the ice cover disappeared. A second theory involves glaciation of Red Sea rift-type basins. Fe-charged brines in such basins would have precipitated on being mixed with “normal” seawater as a result of glacially driven thermal overturn. Both theories provide an explanation of the hydrothermal imprint on the geochemistry of Neoproterozoic BIF but the restricted development of BIF (relative to glacial deposits), evidence of rift activity such as significant facies and thickness changes, and association with volcanic rocks, all favour deposition in a rift environment.Cap carbonates are one of the cornerstones of the SEH. Escape from the snowball condition is said to have resulted from buildup of atmospheric CO₂ while the weathering cycle was stopped. Under such conditions, the first siliciclastic deposits following glaciation, should be extremely weathered, and should be overlain by sedimentary rocks that show a gradual return to more “normal” compositions. Using a chemical index of alteration (CIA) it can be shown that, in the case of the Gowganda Formation, the CIA shows a gradual upward increase, opposite to that predicted by the SEH. The Earth underwent severe climatic perturbations both near the beginning and end of the Proterozoic Eon but whether it attained a totally frozen surface condition (as postulated under the SEH) remains speculative.     

The Nebula Winter: The united view of the snowball Earth,mass extinctions,and explosive evolution in the late Neoproterozoic and Cambrian periods

Encounters with nebulae, such as supernova remnants and dark clouds in the galaxy, can lead to an environmental catastrophe on the Earth through the negative climate forcings and destruction of the ozone layer by enhanced fluxes of cosmic rays and cosmic dust particles. A resultant reduction in primary productivity leads to mass extinctions through depletion of oxygen and food starvations as well as anoxia in the ocean. The model shows three levels of hierarchical time variations caused by supernova encounters (1–10 kyrs), dark cloud encounters (0.1–10 Myrs), and starbursts (~ 100 Myrs), respectively. This “Nebula Winter” model can explain the catastrophic phenomena such as snowball Earth events, repeated mass extinctions, and Cambrian explosion of biodiversities which took place in the late Proterozoic era through the Cambrian period. The Late Neoproterozoic snowball Earth event covers a time range of ca. 200 Myrs long spanning from 770 Ma to the end of Cambrian period (488 Ma) with two snowball states called Sturtian and Marinoan events. Mass extinctions occurred at least eight times in this period, synchronized with large fluctuations in δ¹³C of carbonates in the sediment. Each event is likely to correspond to each nebula encounter. In other words, the late Neoproterozoic snowball Earth and Cambrian explosion are possibly driven by a starburst, which took place around 0.6 Ga in the Milky Way Galaxy. The evidences for a Nebula Winter can be obtained from geological records in sediment in the deep oceans at those times.     

The human ecology of global change: Unresolved questions

The need to view human activity as an integral component of the geosphere-biosphere system has been emphasized since the earliest writings on global environmental change. In recent years, however, the long-term, large-scale interactions between human activities and the world's environment have become the focus of increasing practical and scholarly attention. Several national and international programs are beginning to plan systematic research strategies for better understanding those interactions. This paper attempts to review and summarize the major conclusions of these early planning efforts through a discussion of the major unresolved questions relating to the human ecology of global change.     

Geographic limits to global labor market flexibility: The human resources paradox of the cruise industry

The cruise industry enjoys arguably the most flexible and globalized of all labor markets. Yet, in an apparent paradox, cruise lines face a potential labor shortage, despite the fact that the bulk of their labor is sourced from the Global South where a large labor surplus would seemingly make recruitment a simple process. This paper examines this paradox in greater detail with a focus on the tension that exists between the industry’s demand for a flexible labor force, and the need for workers who maintain the skills required of a cruise ship job. It is argued that the contemporary geography of global labor recruitment is constrained by the particular political, economic and cultural circumstances of individual source countries that make certain cohorts less attractive or available as a workforce. In practice the need for skill and flexibility are not always reconcilable and cruise lines have found that there is a geographic limit to labor market flexibility. The article is based on interviews with various stakeholders involved in either working on cruise ships or in recruiting workers. Special emphasis is placed on Filipino cruise ship workers and labor recruiters as a means to discuss labor recruitment for the entire industry.     

A depleted, not ideally chondritic bulk Earth: The explosive-volcanic basalt loss hypothesis

It has long been customary to assume that in the bulk composition of the Earth, all refractory-lithophile elements (including major oxides Al₂O₃ and CaO, all of the REE, and the heat-producing elements Th and U) occur in chondritic, bulk solar system, proportion to one another. Recently, however, Nd-isotopic studies (most notably Boyet M. and Carlson R. W. (2006) A new geochemical model for the Earth’s mantle inferred from ¹⁴⁶Sm-¹⁴²Nd systematics. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.250, 254-268) have suggested that at least the outer portion of the planet features a Nd/Sm ratio depleted to ∼0.93 times the chondritic ratio. The primary reaction to this type of evidence has been to invoke a “hidden” reservoir of enriched matter, sequestered into the deepest mantle as a consequence of primordial differentiation. I propose a hypothesis that potentially explains the evidence for Nd/Sm depletion in a very different way. Among the handful of major types of differentiated asteroidal meteorites, two (ureilites and aubrites) are ultramafic restites so consistently devoid of plagioclase that meteoriticists were once mystified as to how all the complementary plagioclase-rich matter (basalt) was lost. The explanation appears to be basalt loss by graphite-fueled explosive volcanism on roughly 100-km sized planetesimals; with the dispersiveness of the process dramatically enhanced, relative to terrestrial experience, because the pyroclastic gases expand into vacuous space (Wilson L. and Keil K. (1991) Consequences of explosive eruptions on small Solar System bodies: the case of the missing basalts on the aubrite parent body. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.104, 505-512). By analogy with lunar pyroclastic products, the typical size of pyroclastic melt/glass droplets under these circumstances will be roughly 0.1 mm. Once separated from an asteroidal or planetesimal gravitational field, droplets of this size will generally spiral toward the Sun, rather than reaccrete, because drag forces such the Poynting-Robertson effect quickly modify their orbits (the semimajor axis, in a typical scenario, is reduced by several hundred km during the first trip around the Sun). Assuming a similar process occurred on many of the Earth’s precursor planetesimals while they were still roughly 100 km in diameter, the net effect would be a depleted composition for the final Earth. I have modeled the process of trace-element depletion in the planetesimal mantles, assuming the partial melting was nonmodal and either batch or dynamic in terms of the melt-removal style. Assuming the process is moderately efficient, typical final-Earth Nd/Sm ratios are 0.93-0.96 times chondritic. Depletion is enhanced by a relatively low assumed residual porosity in batch-melting scenarios, but dampened by a relatively high value for “continuous” residue porosity in dynamic melting scenarios. Pigeonite in the source matter has a dampening effect on depletion. There are important side effects to the Nd/Sm depletion. The heat-producing elements, Th, U and K, might be severely depleted. The Eu/Eu^∗ ratio of the planet is unlikely to remain precisely chondritic. One of the most inevitable side effects, depletion of the Al/Ca ratio, is consistent with an otherwise puzzling aspect of the composition of the upper mantle. A perfectly undepleted composition for the bulk Earth is dubious.     

A history of the global understanding of the Earth

The author contributes to the development of a history of the global understanding of the Earth. He summarizes the main steps in the knowledge of the Earth's interior from antiquity to the present time and draws some lessons from this history.     

The significance of global snow and ice cover for global change studies

The spatial extent and volume of global snow and ice cover at present and during glacial conditions are reviewed for each of the principal components (snow cover, land ice, sea ice and permafrost). The state of global monitoring of snow and ice conditions is shown to be adequate for some variables, but unsatisfactory for others. Recent trends are reported and expected changes projected for increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases are examined.     

The emerging terrestrial record of Aptian-Albian global change

The integration of terrestrial carbonate δ¹³C chemostratigraphy and radiometric dates is opening a new window into the continental paleoclimate dynamics of the major carbon cycle perturbations of the Aptian-Albian interval. Results published to date by many researchers clearly show that there was a tight temporal coupling between Aptian-Albian marine, atmospheric, and terrestrial carbon pools that now permits refined global chemostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic correlations on time scales of 10⁶ years or less. This development opens new opportunities to explore the Aptian-Albian Earth system by incorporating continental climate change dynamics in a developing global synthesis. In this paper, we present new U–Pb and U–Th/He age dates on a late Albian volcanic ash deposit in a stratigraphic section that fills a previous gap in in the terrestrial δ¹³C record. Here we also present, for the first time, coordinated δ¹³C_carbonate, δ¹⁸O_carbonate, and δ¹³C_organic data from stacked successions of paleosols in Aptian-Albian terrestrial strata of the Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah, USA. From the whole of this record, the late Aptian C10 C-isotope feature is especially noteworthy as an interval of major global change. Coordinated carbonate and organic carbon isotope data from this interval suggest that this positive carbon isotope excursion (CIE) was related to a buildup of atmospheric pCO₂ to a peak level of about 1200 ppmV over a period of several million years duration, above earlier Aptian baseline levels of about 1000 ppmV. The C10 interval was immediately preceded and followed by drawdowns in pCO₂ to levels of about 800 ppmV, and the entirety of the Aptian-Albian record from the Cedar Mountain Formation suggests a long-term fall of pCO₂ levels from about 1000 down to 600 ppmV. We suggest that the late Aptian buildup likely is related to submarine volcanic activity in the Kerguelen Large Igneous Province in the southern Indian Ocean. Strata of the C-10 C-isotope feature are also associated with sedimentary evidence for an aridification event in the leeward rain shadow of the Sevier Mountains. On the basis of diagenetic studies of dolomitized calcretes in this C10 interval, we calculate that the precipitation-evaporation deficit intensified to the extent that 35–50% of the shallow groundwater system was lost to the atmosphere through evaporation.     

Palaeoenvironments and weathering regime of the Neoproterozoic Squantum ‘Tillite’, Boston Basin: no evidence of a snowball Earth

The snowball Earth hypothesis describes episodes of Neoproterozoic global glaciations, when ice sheets reached sea‐level, the ocean froze to great depth and biota were decimated, accompanied by a complete shutdown of the hydrological cycle. Recent studies of sedimentary successions and Earth systems modelling, however, have brought the hypothesis under considerable debate. The Squantum ‘Tillite’ (Boston Basin, USA), is one of the best constrained snowball Earth successions with respect to age and palaeogeography, and it is suitable to test the hypothesis for the Gaskiers glaciation. The approach used here was to assess the palaeoenvironmental conditions at the type locality of the Squantum Member through an analysis of sedimentary facies and weathering regime (chemical index of alteration). The stratigraphic succession with a total thickness of ca 330 m documents both glacial and non‐glacial depositional environments with a cool‐temperate glacial to temperate non‐glacial climate weathering regime. The base of the succession is composed of thin diamictites and mudstones that carry evidence of sedimentation from floating glacial ice, interbedded with inner shelf sandstones and mudstones. Thicker diamictites interbedded with thin sandstones mark the onset of gravity flow activity, followed by graded sandstones documenting channellized mass gravity flow events. An upward decrease in terrigenous supply is evident, culminating in deep‐water mudstones with a non‐glacial chemical weathering signal. Renewed terrigenous supply and iceberg sedimentation is evident at the top of the succession, beyond which exposure is lost. The glacially influenced sedimentary facies at Squantum Head are more consistent with meltwater dominated alpine glaciation or small local ice caps. The chemical index of alteration values of 61 to 75 for the non‐volcanic rocks requires significant exposure of land surfaces to allow chemical weathering. Therefore, extreme snowball Earth conditions with a complete shutdown of the hydrological cycle do not seem to apply to the Gaskiers glaciation.     

The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs.     

The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs.     

The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs.     

The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs.     

The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs.     

The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs.     

The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs.     

The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs.     

The COVID-19 pandemic and global environmental change: Emerging research needs

The outbreak of COVID-19 raised numerous questions on the interactions between the occurrence of new infections, the environment, climate and health. The European Union requested the H2020 HERA project which aims at setting priorities in research on environment, climate and health, to identify relevant research needs regarding Covid-19. The emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be related to urbanization, habitat destruction, live animal trade, intensive livestock farming and global travel. The contribution of climate and air pollution requires additional studies. Importantly, the severity of COVID-19 depends on the interactions between the viral infection, ageing and chronic diseases such as metabolic, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity which are themselves influenced by environmental stressors. The mechanisms of these interactions deserve additional scrutiny. Both the pandemic and the social response to the disease have elicited an array of behavioural and societal changes that may remain long after the pandemic and that may have long term health effects including on mental health. Recovery plans are currently being discussed or implemented and the environmental and health impacts of those plans are not clearly foreseen. Clearly, COVID-19 will have a long-lasting impact on the environmental health field and will open new research perspectives and policy needs.