Stalagmites from western Thailand: preliminary investigations and challenges for palaeoenvironmental research

Locating suitable caves and stalagmites for palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic studies can be challenging. Isotopic geochemical analyses, albeit commonly performed for palaeoclimatic reconstruction, are also time consuming and costly. Therefore, petrographic and non‐destructive morphological studies on speleothems are desirable to facilitate sample selection for further analysis. In this study, 20 caves were surveyed in Ban Rai district, Uthai Thani province in western Thailand. After external physical observations in the field, three stalagmite samples were collected from Tham Nam Cave to test their potential for palaeoclimatic research. Firstly, the stalagmites were scanned by X‐ray computed tomography (CT scanning) and subsequently the CT images were compared with petrographic inspections. Columnar fabrics show the highest density, whereas closed and open dendritic fabrics have medium and the lowest densities, respectively. Layers near the top and bottom of the three stalagmites were dated by U‐Th mass spectrometric techniques. All three samples were deposited between c. 87 and c. 105 ka ago; therefore, they are probably the oldest stalagmites that have been reported so far from mainland Southeast Asia. However, their physical features indicate that all the samples have suffered from postdepositional dissolution, and are unlikely to be suitable for palaeoclimatic research. The internal dissolution feature of stalagmites, however, cannot be identified by visual inspection of uncut samples. We hereby argue that CT images are useful to characterize stalagmite petrography, in particular fabric, porosity and density. Such features can be used to select the ideal plane of a stalagmite for sectioning, to maximize the chances of robust climatic reconstruction.     

石笋微层气候学的几个重要问题

气候动力和土壤过程的年季旋回造成石笋碳酸盐沉积不连续界面(如有机质)或矿物(如文石与方解石)、结构(如舒松层和致密层)交替转换从而形成了石笋微生长层,石笋微层不但为古气候时间序列提供了高分辨率的时间标尺,而且其本身的厚度变化在一定条件下也记录了气候变化,成为高分辨率的气候代用指标。石笋微层气候学就是在研究石笋微层与气候变化关系的基础上,采用石笋微层定年、利用石笋微层厚度变化定量重建气候历史的科学方法。现在国内外已经公布了数个石笋层厚时间序列,但序列的构成差距很大,而且有的序列已经受到质疑,因此有必要建立一个获取和提供数据的科学规范,以增加石笋微层重建气候工作的可信度,这是石笋微层气候学方法得以顺利发展首先要解决的问题。而在何种条件下气候能够成为影响石笋微层层厚变化的主导因素,可能是石笋微层气候学需要解决的基本问题。此外,文章还讨论了微层界面形成及碳酸盐沉积的时间、层厚曲线平底、层内虚假的灰度、伪年层和年层缺失、平行样品交叉定年的困难原因等石笋微层气候学必须回答的问题。     

高精度ICP-MS 230Th测年新技术及其在贵州衙门洞Y1石笋测年研究中的应用

在系统介绍洞穴石笋高精度ICP-M S铀系年代学原理与方法的基础上,对贵州荔波县衙门洞Y1石笋进行了IC P-M S 　230 Th测年研究。综合分析认为精确时标的建立对于利用石笋进行古气候重建具有重要的实际意义;采用ICP-M S　230 Th测年方法进行石笋样品定年准确可靠,并且比TIM S方法具有更高的效率,所需样品更微量。通过生长速率变化分析表明,石笋生长速率记录了过去冷暖突变事件,因此可以用它作为一个有意义的环境记录替代指标来研究古降水及古气候变化。      

文石石笋发生矿物重结晶的影响因素及其古气候意义

洞穴沉积物—石笋已成为研究岩溶区环境气候变化历史的重要载体。在我国湘西地区,某些洞穴石笋原始沉积多为不稳定的文石矿物,极易发生重结晶,可能使石笋中相关化学元素含量最终偏离原生矿物的特征,限制了文石石笋某些代用指标在古气候研究中的应用。文章以前人研究成果为基础,总结梳理了文石石笋发生重结晶的影响因素及其对石笋记录古气候的影响:（1）石笋剖面特征、XRD结果、显微镜观察和地球化学元素特征等可作为石笋发生重结晶的判别依据;（2）洞穴滴水和石笋孔隙水饱和度、文石晶体缺陷和晶体之间的方解石胶结物以及岩溶水体中Mg2+浓度等均会影响文石石笋的矿物转变;（3）在文石向方解石转变过程中,石笋铀含量会有一定程度的流失,可导致放射性铀系定年的异常或年代倒序;（4）矿物重结晶可导致δ18O、δ13C及石笋微量元素浓度（或比值）等指标发生改变,其变化特征因洞穴而异,从而影响其作为环境指示器的可靠性;（5）湖南龙山惹迷洞石笋（RM2）发生了不均一的矿物重结晶,自顶部至20.3 cm以放射状为主,20.3 cm至底部主要为糖粒状,并结合年代结果发现文石重结晶对石笋铀系定年产生了影响,而重结晶作用对该石笋其他指标的影响还有待进一步研究。      

Analysis of the climate signal contained within δO and growth rate parameters in two Ethiopian stalagmites

We combine surface and cave climate monitoring with multiple stalagmite parameters to help understand and calibrate the climate records contained within stalagmites from a region with strong rainfall seasonality. Two actively growing stalagmites from Ethiopia were analysed in order to investigate the climate signal contained within δ¹⁸O and growth rate parameters. The δ¹⁸O and growth rate of the two stalagmites give different responses to surface climate due to variations in the climate signal transfer. Both stalagmites (Merc-1 and Asfa-3) have a climate response that is seasonal; however this signal is subsequently smoothed by the mixing of event and storage water within the aquifer. Merc-1 responds more to high frequency (‘event’) climate, due to a greater ratio of event to storage water in this sample, whereas Asfa-3 responds more to low frequency (‘storage’) climate. In addition, different parameters respond to different seasons. For example, stalagmite Asfa-3, from greater depth from the surface and with a slow drip rate, has a growth rate that responds to the amount of summer rain. In contrast, Merc-1, closer to the surface and with a faster drip rate, exhibits no clear response to surface climate, probably due to a more complex climate signal transfer. δ¹⁸O response varies with stalagmite due to the interplay between rainfall forcing factors (amount, seasonality) and disequilibrium kinetics, with opposing correlations between seasonal rainfall and δ¹⁸O between the samples. Our results demonstrate that analysis of seasonal climate forcing, and transfer functions reflecting the mixing of event and storage water, may be the most appropriate approach to develop of transfer functions appropriate for high-resolution, stalagmite climate reconstruction.     

桂林水南洞石笋的沉积学特征

利用组成石笋的方解石成分、岩石化学、微量元素含量以及结构、层面构造、沉积间断或风化壳等特征标志,阐述桂林水南洞石笋的沉积特征以及古滴水动态变化.经铀系法测年,确定石笋形成于中更新世晚期至晚更新世早期,其年龄为8.07万年至22.91万年,经历了14.84万年,沉积速率为2.08~2.82mm/100a(未扣除间断时间).     

石笋生长直径的测定及其在古气候重建中的应用

石笋是第四纪陆地气候重建的良好信息载体,对了解过去气候和环境的演变十分重要。中国石笋具有生长相对连续,年代准确,信息丰富等特点,为全球季风及其长期演化提供了不可多得的视窗。基于石笋而开发了一系列气候替代指标,如δ18O、δ13C、微量元素及其同位素组成、有机化合物及其同位素组成、生长速率等,在石笋古气候重建中得到广泛的应用。但是,作为石笋形貌学的基本特征,对石笋的生长直径及其对气候变化的指示意义却鲜有报道。本研究中,作者首先提出一种测定石笋生长直径的方法,然后利用该方法测定了湖北清江和尚洞HS4石笋顶部35 cm的石笋生长直径,并与研究区的气温和洪涝频率记录进行比较,探讨石笋生长直径对气候变化的响应。研究表明,通过纹层的识别和不同深度上纹层宽度的测定而建立的指数回归法较好地表征了石笋的生长直径,适合于一些具有明显纹层的石笋直径测定。HS4石笋的实际生长直径比理论计算值偏小,可能与洞穴结构有关;高的落差增加了岩溶滴水的冲力,水滴飞溅而导致有效水量的损失,即滴水的有效体积减少,石笋直径偏小。与温度相比,降水对石笋直径的影响更加显著,因而石笋直径是一个有效降水的替代指标,有望在石笋古气候的研究中得到应用。      

石笋记录年际、年代际极端天气/气候事件研究进展

近年来随着极端天气/气候事件的频发,应对极端天气/气候事件的要求极其紧迫。目前气象资料对极端天气/气候事件的研究相对较短,由此作者提出利用石笋记录重建历史年际、年代际极端天气/气候事件的构想。通过对目前已有的石笋极端天气/气候事件研究实例分析总结,认为洞穴石笋沉积速率相对较快,石笋中标志性结构构造特征的存在,有利于石笋记录到极端天气/气候事件。同时就目前的研究现状,作者提出建立准确年代标尺、选择生长速率相对较快和存在标志性结构构造特征、能记录到极端气候的石笋,以及提高采样分辨率和与其他记录相互验证等作为石笋极端气候研究的工作要求,同时就文石笋研究极端天气/气候事件提出文石笋可能更加容易记录到极端天气/气候事件的个人新认识。      

川东北石笋记录的38～39 ka B.P.活动事件

通过川东北诺水河溶洞群石笋的年代学分析,发现多支时代跨越35～ 40kaB. P.的石笋记录了发生时间在38～ 39 kaB. P.的事件: 有的石笋发育中断,有的石笋生长轴心发生了变化,有的石笋则刚刚开始发育。初步的证据显示该事件不是气候成因所为,也不像由于洞穴局部塌陷引起。考虑到秦岭山地是新构造活动十分发育的地区,为此我们推测该事件很可能与某一次构造活动有关,也可能是由一次大规模重力地貌过程(如滑坡)造成。因此,洞穴沉积物(包括石笋、石钟乳和流石等)可望为川东北地区的新构造活动尤其是地震事件研究提供一种新的依据。      

利用石笋δ13C重建岩溶石漠化研究进展

岩溶石漠化的形成演化机制是被关注的科学问题,对脆弱的岩溶区生态环境恢复具有重要的现实意义。洞穴石笋δ13C受到多种因素影响,能敏感响应地表生态环境以及岩溶水文条件的变化。因此,利用石笋δ13C研究岩溶地区生态环境演变历史成为一个重要方向。本文从地表环境和洞穴沉积两个方面梳理了影响石笋δ13C的主要因素。结合现代洞穴监测及模型模拟研究,分析整理了影响洞穴滴水和沉积物中δ13C的主要因素和机理。在多重因素的影响下,石笋δ13C的环境意义具有多解性,文章从时间尺度、空间分布、沉积环境三方面归纳了石笋δ13C的指示意义。为了准确解释石笋δ13C环境意义,提出了综合分析、现代监测以及模型模拟的解决方案。通过对岩溶石漠化概念、成因、发展过程、以及环境效应的讨论,分析了地表石漠化与石笋δ13C记录的密切联系。总结了已经发表的利用石笋δ13C重建区域石漠化的研究成果,讨论了目前研究中面临的主要问题:(1) 如何正确解译石笋δ13C的指示意义？这是石笋δ13C能够用于重建区域石漠化历史的前提;(2) 在空间上,石笋δ13C记录反映上覆地表的面积是有限的,需考虑石笋能否代表目标研究区域的环境变迁;(3) 石漠化可在年—十年际时间尺度上快速发展,而石笋测年存在一定的年龄误差,石笋δ13C是否能够敏感记录地表的石漠化过程？为了准确重建区域岩溶环境以及石漠化演变历史,提出以下主要建议:(1) 为了避免石笋δ13C重建古环境的不确定性,可加强石笋δ13C与δ18O、微量元素、矿物结构等指标的综合对比分析,与现代监测以及模型模拟的解决方案综合集成,能更加准确重建研究区岩溶水文变化过程,判定石漠化的演化历史;(2) 通过区域和同一洞穴的多根石笋记录对比,减少单一石笋记录的区域代表性问题;(3) 高精度年代控制的高分辨率多指标石笋记录,有助于捕捉快速发生的石漠化过程。      

石笋记录年际、年代际极端天气/气候事件研究进展

近年来随着极端天气/气候事件的频发,应对极端天气/气候事件的要求极其紧迫。目前气象资料对极端天气/气候事件的研究相对较短,由此作者提出利用石笋记录重建历史年际、年代际极端天气/气候事件的构想。通过对目前已有的石笋极端天气/气候事件研究实例分析总结,认为洞穴石笋沉积速率相对较快,石笋中标志性结构构造特征的存在,有利于石笋记录到极端天气/气候事件。同时就目前的研究现状,作者提出建立准确年代标尺、选择生长速率相对较快和存在标志性结构构造特征、能记录到极端气候的石笋,以及提高采样分辨率和与其他记录相互验证等作为石笋极端气候研究的工作要求,同时就文石笋研究极端天气/气候事件提出文石笋可能更加容易记录到极端天气/气候事件的个人新认识。     

A new approach to detecting vegetation and land-use change using high-resolution lipid biomarker records in stalagmites

A hundred-year stalagmite lipid biomarker record from Mechara, southeastern Ethiopia, is presented. The record has been recovered at a 10-yr temporal resolution, marking the first time this has been achieved in stalagmite biomarker work and providing the first opportunity to investigate the relationship between stalagmite lipid records and hydrological transport lags, a vital issue in interpreting palaeoenvironmental signals. Preserved plant-derived n-alkanes and n-alkanols show clear changes in composition over time, relating to known land-use changes in the area, particularly the expansion of agriculture in the early twentieth century. The level of environmental detail provided by this technique, combined with the long-term chronological framework offered by stalagmites, holds significant promise for the investigation of early human environments and their associated climatic and anthropogenic controls.     

文石-方解石石笋U/Th体系的封闭性判断及意义

湖南省龙山县莲花洞两根大型石笋LLl(文石-方解石型)和LL5(文石型)ICP-MS230Th结果表明,82个年龄数据并不完全符合石笋生长层序律.根据U/Th同位素比值、沉积和矿物学特征,分析了同位素体系开放度对建立石笋正确年代学模式的影响.莲花洞LLl石笋全新世以来234U/238U对230Th/238U的比值具有谐和性特征并且230Th年龄层序正常,说明文石矿物基本接近U/Th同位素封闭系统,实测年龄基本可靠.10～40 ka期间234U/238U与230Th/238U离散度较大和矿物具有溶蚀、风化现象,表明体系发生U加入/流失作用.LL5石笋60～80 ka期间封闭性较好,实测年龄可信.上述结果表明,同一洞穴中文石石笋U/Th同位素体系开放度与时间的关系并不是线性关系,沉积时水文和物理化学性质以及随后的保存状况是决定洞穴文石石笋同位素封闭性的关键因素.     

贵州荔波董歌洞较老石笋ICP-MS~(230)Th测年研究及古气候应用

石笋记录研究的进展与测年技术的发展密不可分,测年新技术的突破不断推动利用石笋重建古气候研究的飞速前进。在利用石笋进行古气候重建过程中,建立精确的时标是首要条件。通过对较老(>250ka)石笋的ICP-MS230Th测年研究,发现贵州荔波董歌洞D6、D7、D9石笋具有比较连续的高分辨记录,最老年龄超过400ka,通过230Th测年数据的分析为建立我国西南地区500ka以来标准剖面打下基础;对董歌洞3根大型石笋135个230Th年龄数据及生长速率的分析研究,发现石笋生长速率在大尺度的变化上与海洋沉积SPECMAP曲线δ18O记录有很好的负相关关系,并与北纬25°夏季太阳辐射能量变化曲线呈一定的正相关关系,石笋生长速率的变化在间冰期处于高值,而在冰期时为低值,在间冰期和冰期转化阶段生长速率呈跳跃式变化。通过生长速率变化分析表明,石笋生长速率记录了过去突变冷暖事件的变化,因此可以作为一个有意义的环境记录替代指标来研究古降水及古气候变化。     

古气候变化的石笋同位素记录研究——以桂林盘龙洞为例

本文以桂林盘龙洞的研究工作为例，选择大型石笋剖面，在沉积学分析学研究的基础上，采用目前最先进的测年技术———ＡＭＳ１４Ｃ法，配合Ｕ系及稳定同位素地球化学综合手段，系统提取气候信息，建立了桂林地区３．６万ａ来气候变化的基本模式。该区末次冰期３．２～３．６万ａ时，年平均气温最低８～９℃。全新世在总的暖和、潮湿气候背景下，可划分出由暖到冷的３个气候旋回，每个旋回持续约３０００ａ左右，暖期年平均气温高于现今３～４℃，冷期低于现今３℃左右，可鉴别的次一级冷期可与我国５０００ａ物候记录资料进行对比。     

石笋微层研究及其气候意义

在分析石笋微层形成机理的基础上,介绍了石笋微层厚度测量的主要方法及影响因素.结合U-Th系定年与显微镜镜下计数,对采自长江中游清江和尚洞的一支正在生长的年轻石笋进行了初步的微层厚度测量,结果显示生长于该地区的石笋非常适合于微层研究,并就石笋微层研究对古气候重建的重要意义及该领域的发展趋势进行了探讨.     

Hyperspectral imaging of speleothems

Proxy records from speleothems are used in palaeoclimatic reconstructions, as the factors controlling their growth rate, nature of their internal structure and chemical composition respond to changes in surface climate. Optical analyses of stalagmites include visual observation of stalagmite images obtained from flatbed scanners or digital cameras. Hyperspectral imaging has not been used in stalagmite research, but potentially has many advantages over standard optical imaging techniques. Hyperspectral images of a set of stalagmites have been obtained in order to demonstrate the application of hyperspectral imaging in speleothem research. Our results highlight the following: (1) Spectra obtained for these calcite stalagmites are similar between a group of stalagmites of different ages, hydrological setting within a cave and from different caves. (2) The largest differences in relative reflectance between areas of dark compact calcite (DCC) and white porous calcite (WPC) are in the range 470–590 nm (this may extend to 680 nm for some of the stalagmites). (3) Imaging in the near infrared (NIR) demonstrates a decrease in reflection at water absorbance wavelengths, suggesting there is potential for mapping H₂O.     

A paleoclimate record of the last 17,600 years in stalagmites from the B7 cave,Sauerland, Germany

Petrographical and geochemical parameters of stalagmites from the B7 cave in Iserlohn–Letmathe (Northern Rhenish Massif, NW Germany) record Late- and postglacial climate changes (temperature and/or precipitation). Fabrics and microfacies of the stalagmite profiles lead to a differentiation of four hierarchies of rhythms. Clastic layers in the stalagmites are caused by flooding events and are time markers. Twenty-four TIMS Th/U-age-dates provide a time calibration of stalagmite growth phases. One stalagmite reveals an early growth period between 17.6 and 16.7 ka BP. Between 9.6 and 5.5 ka BP (Atlantic episode of the Holocene) the growth rate of the stalagmites was higher than before and after this time, with dominant light-porous microfacial laminae and high δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C values representing partly kinetic fractionation effects. This part of the Holocene is interpreted as a mainly warm episode with frequent interruptions of dripping. Within the past 4 ka the profiles with predominant dark compact facies reveal low isotopic values which may be interpreted as a temperature proxy record. The stalagmite records resemble records from an Irish stalagmite. Correlation with the Δ¹⁴C record from European tree rings suggests that colder periods in the North Atlantic were accompanied by drier winters in central Europe.     

A 2000‐year lipid biomarker record preserved in a stalagmite from north‐west Scotland

Previous studies on lipid biomarkers preserved in Chinese stalagmites have indicated that ratios of low‐molecular‐weight (LMW) to high‐molecular‐weight (HMW) n‐alkanes, n‐alkan‐2‐ones, n‐alkanols and n‐alkanoic acids can be used as an index of vegetation versus microbial organic matter input to the system and, by extension, a marker of climatic changes, with increases in the proportion of LMW compounds coinciding with colder periods. Here we test whether this hypothesis is equally applicable to a different geographical region (north‐west Scotland), by examining a stalagmite record of the past 200 years, and a wider range of lipid markers. We also test the applicability of other lipid proxies in this context, including the use of n‐alkane ratios, to interpret vegetation changes, and unsaturated alkanoic acid ratios as climatic indicators. The results show that lipid proxies preserved in stalagmites, and especially those related to vegetation, are potentially extremely useful in palaeoenvironmental research. Of particular value is the use of C₂₇/C₃₁ n‐alkane ratios as a proxy for vegetation change, clearly indicating variations between herbaceous and arboreal cover. This proxy has now been successfully applied to samples from diverse environments, and can be considered sufficiently robust to be of use in analysing future stalagmite records. It will be of particular value in areas where reliable pollen records are not available, as is often the case with deeper cave deposits. However, the division between LMW and HMW aliphatic compounds is not a clear‐cut case of microbial versus plant activity, with the changes in LMW compounds relating more closely to those in their HMW analogues than in specific bacterial biomarkers. The use of unsaturated alkanoic acid ratios here gives conflicting results, with the observed variation through time depending on the isomer measured. The discrepancies between the findings of this study and previous work are likely to be due to the varying controls on the lipids (original organic matter input, and compound degradation), which in turn will be affected by whether the main climatic limiting factor on the soil is temperature or precipitation. This suggests that lipid proxies preserved in stalagmites must be interpreted with care, particularly in the case of bacterial compounds which may be derived from within the cave or from the soil. However, many of these issues can be resolved by the use of multi‐proxy studies. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

石笋氧同位素指示东亚季风大尺度环流特征

利用湖北清江和尚洞的两支具有精确年代的年层石笋,建立了20世纪逐年的石笋氧同位素序列,讨论东亚季风石笋氧同位素的气候指示意义。与现代气象观测资料对比,发现近100年来和尚洞石笋 δ18O 与当地年总降水量和年均温度的相关性并不显著,但与指示东亚季风环流特征的西太平洋副热带高压指数(WPSH)以及相对应的太平洋年代际振荡指数(PDO)相关性好。在年际和年代际尺度上,当太平洋年代际振荡处于正(负)相位时,副热带高压加强(减弱),石笋的 δ18O 相对偏正(负)。因而,石笋 δ18O 反映了东亚季风大尺度环流特征。