中国软沉积物变形构造及地震岩研究简评①

近30年(1987—2016)来,中国的软沉积物变形构造、地震岩、震积岩及古地震研究,取得了很大的进展和成绩。但是,在国内中文期刊中已发表的约140篇文章和已出版的一些专著中,几乎都把具软沉积物变形构造的岩层当作地震岩。可喜的是,中国石油大学(华东)的老师们和学生们,对山东青岛灵山岛下白垩统中的软沉积物变形构造的研究,却有多种不同的观点,呈现出了一种活跃的学术气氛。笔者等的看法是: (1)软沉积物变形构造是一种沉积构造,它有多种成因,它是一个很好的沉积学和地质学术语,应继续地和更广泛地使用下去。(2)地震岩是专指由地震引起的具软沉积物变形构造的岩层,它是具多成因的软沉积物变形构造的岩层的一种,不能把所有的具软沉积构造的岩层都当作地震岩。有的地质学家建议废弃地震岩这一术语。(3)震积岩是“seismites”(地震岩)的误译,不宜再继续使用。(4)由于地震岩和震积岩这两个术语在国内外已使用多年,要废弃它们或不再继续使用它们,应得到国内外的多数地质学家的同意才行。     

Genesis and diagnostic value of soft-sediment deformation structures—A review

Soft-sediment deformation structures are recognized as important diagnostic features in the rock record for determination of depositional environments and slope processes. The diagnostic value of these structures is reevaluated by analysis of the parameters controlling sediment deformation. Soft-sediment deformation is contemporaneous with deposition and occurs dominantly in course silt to fine sand. The high depositional rate, low permeability and low shear strength of grains within this sediment range maximize the occurrence of deformation. The dominant mechanisms responsible for sediment deformation include: (1) liquefaction or fluidization; (2) reverse density gradation; (3) slumping or slope failure; and (4) shear stress. In most cases a combination of these mechanisms occurs. The processes function in a continuum, producing features that are microscopic to megascopic in scale. It is shown that the processes, and thus the structures, are not environment specific. The true diagnostic value of the structures may be in defining hydrodynamic conditions, and in interpreting paleocurrents and paleoclimatic and paleoseismic events. Ultimately, for the best diagnostic results, soft-sediment deformation structures should be studied in association with all other available lithologic, structural and paleontological information.     

Geometry and origin of large-scale deformation structures in some ancient wind-blown sand deposits

Large-scale deformational features that disrupt the cross-bedded strata of some ancient wind-blown dune sand deposits (Jurassic Aztec and Navajo Sandstones, U.S.A.) can betraced laterally for at least tens of metres. Information from four exposures leads to an idealized deformation style characterized by (1) a ‘head’ portion marked by collapse features, (2) a middle portion marked by a thrust ramp or a large recumbent fold, and (3) a ‘toe’ portion marked by a planar shear zone with small recumbent folds, drag folds, and possibly small horizontal shear faults. An hypothesis involving earthquake-induced liquefaction and collapse of the dunes is proposed. Sands liquefied during earthquakes cannot support an unequal surface load, resulting in the collapse of surface dunes above the liquefied substrate. Compensatory lateral squeezing of liquefied sand and buried strata produces the shear zone in the ‘toe’ portion. Engineering studies suggest that buried strata underlying interdunal lows, where over-burden stress is least, will be most susceptible to liquefaction. Other considerations suggest that it will be the steeper lee sides of advancing surface dunes that collapse, squeezing liquefied sand forward or downwind, i.e. away from the lee slope of surface dunes. If the liquefied condition persists, load structures can be formed when unliquefied layers founder into the liquefied substrate.     

辽西地区风积砂土振动液化特性的试验研究

本文对辽西地区风积砂土地震液化特性进行了实验研究,对围压、固结比、密度和细粒含量进行了分析,得出了它们对抗液化强度的影响规律,同时分析了不同细粒含量和干密度对砂土振动孔压发展模式的影响规律.在偏压固结情况下,振动孔压的发展趋势可以用双曲线对其进行模拟;在均压固结条件下,振动孔压的发展趋势和H.B.Seed、张建民等人研究的振动孔压发展趋势的曲线形态相一致.通过实验分析表明细粒含量、密度等都会对孔压的增长规律有一定影响.     

Experimental study of the grading characteristic effect on the liquefaction resistance of various graded sands and gravelly sands

The liquefaction vulnerability of fine- to coarse-graded saturated sand and gravelly sand is evaluated by stress control cyclic triaxial laboratory tests. Cyclic triaxial test on reconstituted specimens is carried out with relative density of 45 %. Cyclic triaxial tests performed by sinusoidal wave form with 1-Hz frequency and with the effective consolidation pressure equal to 100 kPa. Cyclic stress ratio which caused initial liquefaction in 15 cycles recognized as the liquefaction resistance in cyclic triaxial test of present study. The result had been used to find a relationship between liquefaction resistance and the grading characteristics (e.g., coefficient of curvature and coefficient of uniformity) of various graded sands and gravelly sands. Then, it is realized that a relationship between liquefaction resistance and any of the sizes (i.e., D ₁₀, D ₃₀, D ₅₀, D ₆₀) appears to be more practical.     

地震成因软沉积物变形记录的地震强度研究进展

〗确定地震震级对中长期地震预报、震后应急救援和地震危险性评价具有重要意义。古地震学是研究地质记录中的地震事件,特别是它们的位置、时间和震级大小。然而,传统由地表破裂参数确定的古地震震级仍存在不确定性（大多数地震事件不会导致地表破裂,或位移小于0.3m）,尤其是由湖泊沉积记录的古地震事件。为了解决未发现明显位错地震震级问题,本文依据软沉积物变形构造的类型和形式,对确定地震震级/强度的方法（经验估算、最大液化距离、扰动层厚度、软沉积物变形类型,经验公式,快速沉积砂层厚度）进行总结和讨论,并分析其理论基础、优缺点、误差大小、适用性、存在问题等。并以中东死海盆地利桑组晚更新世湖相沉积中的震积岩(混杂层)和岷江上游萝卜寨晚第四纪湖相沉积中地震成因的液化底劈为例,利用上述6种方法推断,其代表的震级分别为M5.5~6.5和M6.0~7.0,进一步证实了前人的研究结果。这6种方法的结合,为确定地震震级/强度,特别是湖泊沉积中的地震事件提供了一种新的、相对便捷的方法。该研究可为基于地表破裂参数确定的古地震震级提供可靠的参考,为更好地认识构造活跃的地震活动性和危险性提供数据支持。     

地震成因软沉积物变形记录的地震强度研究进展

〗确定地震震级对中长期地震预报、震后应急救援和地震危险性评价具有重要意义。古地震学是研究地质记录中的地震事件,特别是它们的位置、时间和震级大小。然而,传统由地表破裂参数确定的古地震震级仍存在不确定性（大多数地震事件不会导致地表破裂,或位移小于0.3m）,尤其是由湖泊沉积记录的古地震事件。为了解决未发现明显位错地震震级问题,本文依据软沉积物变形构造的类型和形式,对确定地震震级/强度的方法（经验估算、最大液化距离、扰动层厚度、软沉积物变形类型,经验公式,快速沉积砂层厚度）进行总结和讨论,并分析其理论基础、优缺点、误差大小、适用性、存在问题等。并以中东死海盆地利桑组晚更新世湖相沉积中的震积岩(混杂层)和岷江上游萝卜寨晚第四纪湖相沉积中地震成因的液化底劈为例,利用上述6种方法推断,其代表的震级分别为M5.5~6.5和M6.0~7.0,进一步证实了前人的研究结果。这6种方法的结合,为确定地震震级/强度,特别是湖泊沉积中的地震事件提供了一种新的、相对便捷的方法。该研究可为基于地表破裂参数确定的古地震震级提供可靠的参考,为更好地认识构造活跃的地震活动性和危险性提供数据支持。     

Earthquake-related soft-sediment deformation structures in Palaeogene on the continental shelf of the East China Sea

Earthquake, as disastrous events in geological history, can be recorded as soft-sediment deformation. In the Palaeogene of the East China Sea shelf, the soft-sediment deformation related to earthquake event is recognized as seismic micro-fractures, micro-corrugated laminations, liquefied veins, ‘vibrated liquefied layers’, deformed cross laminations and convolute laminations, load structures, flame structures, brecciation, slump structures and seismodisconformity. There exists a lateral continuum, the wide spatial distribution and the local vertical continuous sequences of seismites including slump, liquefaction and brecciation. In the Palaeogene of East China Sea shelf, where typical soft-sediment deformation structures were developed, clastic deposits of tidal-flat, delta and river facies are the main background deposits of Middle-Upper Eocene Pinghu Formation and Oligocene Huagang Formation. This succession also records diagnostic marks of event deposits and basinal tectonic activities in the form of seismites.     

山东省灵山岛早白垩世软沉积物变形构造特征*

利用野外露头和镜下薄片等资料、地质统计等方法, 对山东省灵山岛老虎嘴剖面和船厂滑塌剖面软沉积物变形构造分布特征和形成期次进行了研究。船厂剖面发育滑塌褶皱、负载构造、阶梯断层、布丁构造、球—枕构造等典型的软沉积物变形构造;老虎嘴剖面发育层内褶皱、微阶梯断层、层内角砾岩等。根据形成时间、发育部位和形态特征, 将船厂剖面变形划分为滑塌前变形和滑塌中变形, 滑塌前变形又可以细分滑塌体下部变形和滑塌体内部变形。滑塌褶皱具有多级别、多尺度的特点;以厚岩层组成的滑塌褶皱为主, 尺寸为米级;岩层内部纹层形成的次级褶皱为辅, 尺寸为毫米级。滑塌过程中岩层不同部位应力不同, 伴生其他变形构造, 如拉张形成的布丁构造和挤压形成剪切褶皱等。滑塌前已经形成的负载构造等在滑塌过程中保持原来形态, 不因地层变形而变形。这些古地震触发形成的软沉积变形构造证明灵山岛在早白垩世古地震活动频繁。     

Experimental investigation of the effect of grading characteristics on the liquefaction resistance of various graded sands

The liquefaction susceptibility of various graded fine to medium saturated sands are evaluated by stress controlled cyclic triaxial laboratory tests. Cyclic triaxial tests are performed on reconstituted specimens having global relative density of 60%. In all cyclic triaxial tests; loading pattern is selected as a sinusoidal wave form with 1.0 Hz frequency, and effective consolidation pressure is chosen to be 100 kPa. Liquefaction resistance is defined as the required cyclic stress ratio which caused initial liquefaction in 10 cycles during the cyclic triaxial test. The results are used to draw relationship between grading characteristics (e.g. coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of curvature) and the liquefaction resistance of various graded sands. It is found that a relationship between cyclic resistance and any of the size (i.e. D₁₀, D₃₀ or D₆₀) would be more realistic than to build a relation between grading characteristics and the cyclic resistance.     

Steady state and liquefaction characteristics of gravely sands

Liquefaction of loose and saturated soils during earthquakes and strong ground motions has been a major cause of damage to buildings and earth embankments as well as other civil engineering structures. In order to evaluate the liquefaction potential and steady state characteristics of gravely sand of south west Tehran,a subsoil exploration program conducted dividing the region into 10 zones. In each zone of 500 m × 500 m a borehole of 20 m deep was drilled. SPT was performed at one meter intervals in each borehole and a total of 200 samples were recovered. Soils of similar grain size distribution have been considered to have similar steady state characteristics,therefore consolidated undrained triaxial tests were performed on these soils of similar grain size distribution to evaluate the steady state strength. The steady state line for each soil type was derived. Comparing the steady state strengths with the shear stress due to an earthquake with a PGA of 0.35 g,the potential of sand liquefaction and .ow failure in soil layers has been evaluated and the settlement of soil due to the liquefaction phenomena is calculated. Finally some recommendations for estimating the steady state strength from simple SPT test in gravely sands are presented.     

饱和层状砂土液化特性的动三轴试验研究

利用GDS动三轴试验系统采用等幅循环应变加载方式对含有不同厚度粉土的饱和层状砂土进行了液化强度试验。分析了均匀砂和含有不同粉粒层厚度的层状砂土在循环荷载作用下的变形和力学特性。试验分析表明：由于含粉粒夹层的层状土特殊的土体结构,其孔隙水压力发展规律与一般的无黏性砂土不同;饱和层状砂土的抗液化强度并不是随着粉粒层厚度的增加而单调增加的,而是存在一个临界点;液化临界剪应变的大小与液化判别标准和循环次数有很大关系。试验结果表明,粉粒夹层对层状砂土的液化特性有很大的影响,且更能模拟自然环境条件下的层状砂土地基液化特性。     

Prediction of flow liquefaction instability of clean and silty sands

Adding a small amount of non-plastic silt to clean sands may lead to dramatic loss of shear strength and a noteworthy tendency toward contraction when the mechanical behavior of the mixture is compared with that of the clean host sand. Thus, simulation of the behavior of silty sands with varying fines content is still a challenging subject in geomechanics. A unified constitutive model for clean and silty sands is presented in this paper. To eliminate the factitious decrease of void ratio associated with inactive silt particles in various silty sand mixtures, the concept of equivalent void ratio is used in the model formulation instead of the global void ratio. In addition, the instantaneous soil state is expressed in terms of intergranular state parameter taking into account the combined influence of intergranular void ratio, mean principal effective stress and fines content. Then, dilatancy and plastic hardening modulus are directly linked to the intergranular state parameter. To improve the model capacity in simulation of cyclic tests, new features are added to the plastic hardening modulus. It is shown that the proposed model can reasonably reproduce the mechanical behavior as well as the onset of flow liquefaction instability of clean and silty sands using a unique set of parameters.     

Sedimentary facies and soft-sediment deformation structures in the late miocene-pliocene Middle Siwalik subgroup,eastern Himalaya,Darjiling District,India

The Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt has propagated from its Tibetan hinterland to the southern foreland since ∼55 Ma. The Siwalik sediments (∼20 - 2 Ma) were deposited in the frontal Himalayan foreland basin and subsequently became part of the thrust belt since ∼ 12 Ma. Restoration of the deformed section of the Middle Siwalik sequence reveals that the sequence is ∼325 m thick. Sedimentary facies analysis of the Middle Siwalik rocks points to the deposition of the Middle Siwalik sediments in an alluvial fan setup that was affected by uplift and foreland-ward propagation of Greater and Lesser Himalayan thrusts. Soft-sediment deformation structures preserved in the Middle Siwalik sequence in the Darjiling Himalaya are interpreted to have formed by sediment liquefaction resulting from increased pore-water pressure probably due to strong seismic shaking. Soft-sediment structures such as convolute lamination, flame structures, and various kinds of deformed cross-stratification are thus recognized as palaeoseismic in origin. This is the first report of seismites from the Siwalik succession of Darjiling Himalaya which indicates just like other sectors of Siwalik foreland basin and the present-day Gangetic foreland basin that the Siwalik sediments of this sector responded to seismicity.     

基于数字图像的砂土压缩变形模式的试验研究

基于数字图像处理技术,利用图像分析程序包PhotoInfor分析了侧限压缩条件下砂土各加荷阶段土体位移的产生、发展与演化全过程,发现砂土的位移场类似于抛物线形状,位移等值线呈轴对称分布,位移量最大的区域总是发生在上透水石的下底面中心处。单调加荷条件下,位移增量主要集中在局部变形带附近,其范围有继续延展和贯通的趋势,顶部、中部测点的土体位移与整体压缩量基本呈同步增长;顶部的土体位移量始终大于中部,加荷的中后期差别更加明显。与粉质黏土位移场进行对比试验分析,砂土内部的应力传递、变形模式以及荷载的影响范围均表现出明显的差异。上述研究为深入探讨基底压力的分布规律,利用宏观试验现象研究砂土细观结构变化的定量模型提供了新的思路。     

Influence of plastic fines content on the liquefaction susceptibility of sands: cyclic loading

Acta Geotechnica - The paper presents an experimental study on the effect of plastic fines content on the undrained behavior and liquefaction susceptibility of sand-fines mixtures under cyclic...     

Influence of plastic fines content on the liquefaction susceptibility of sands: monotonic loading

Acta Geotechnica - The paper presents an experimental study on the effect of plastic fines content on the undrained behavior and liquefaction susceptibility of sand–fines mixtures under...     

Towards establishing criteria for identifying trigger mechanisms for soft-sediment deformation: a case study of Late Pleistocene lacustrine sands and clays, Onikobe and Nakayamadaira Basins, northeastern Japan

Five main deformation units, discrete sheets of deformed sediments that lie between a significant thickness of undeformed sediment, were selected for study within Late Pleistocene lacustrine sands and clays in the Onikobe and Nakayamadaira Basins, northeastern Japan. The deformed units show evidence of deformation by a variety of mechanisms including fluidization, liquefaction, brittle failure and cohesive flow. Driving forces are thought to be primarily reverse density gradient systems, but also include gravitational body force, shear stress and unequal loading. The main trigger mechanisms are firstly earthquakes, secondly overloading from volcanic sands and thirdly, to a lesser extent, subaqueous currents. Consideration is given to criteria that allow the trigger mechanism to be identified. This study shows that the following criteria can be used to identify a seismic triggering agent: (i) setting; (ii) the extent of the deformation units; (iii) absence of evidence relating to other potential trigger mechanisms; and (iv) evidence relating to other potential trigger mechanisms is present but can be seen elsewhere in the stratigraphic section associated with undeformed sediment. Conversely, the following criteria, while they are important in interpreting the driving force and deformation mechanism, have no relevance to the trigger mechanism: (i) sediment composition; (ii) deformation structures being restricted to a single stratigraphic interval (<1 m thick) (not necessarily correlatable over large areas); and (iii) similarity to structures in the literature.     

Superposed deformation and inherited structures in an ancient dilational step-over zone: Post-mortem of the Rengali Province,India

In the eastern Indian shield, a dextral strike-slip system juxtaposed the Archaean Singhbhum Province against the Proterozoic Eastern Ghats Belt at ∼490–470 Ma. Two WNW–ESE trending strands of the strike-slip system enclose a multiply deformed (D₁ to D₃) intervening domain called the Rengali Province, with D₃ representing dextral shearing. In a granulite lens within the province, an early fabric (S_gr) was deformed by an amphibolite facies D₁–D₂ deformation continuum in the late Archaean time, forming cylindrical folds. In the surrounding quartzofeldspathic gneisses, quartzites and mica schists of the province, superimposition of syn-D₃ shortening on D₁-D₂ folds generated complex non-cylindrical geometries; the granulites escaped D₃ strain. Microstructures in the province-bounding shear zones confirm that D₃ deformation was associated with mylonitization, dynamic recrystallization and greenschist facies metamorphism. In the quartzites, syn-D₃ folds can be correlated with rotation of D₁–D₂ structures through the shortening zone of bounding dextral shears. Since the province-bounding shears form a step-over zone, the structural complexity within the Rengali Province arises from superposition of syn-D₃ shortening structures on initially asympathetically oriented inherited cylindrical D₁-D₂ folds. Hydrous fluid channeling causing greenschist facies metamorphism and quartz vein emplacement accompanied D₃ as the step-over zone was dilational in nature.