Origin of giant stratabound deposits of magnesite and siderite in Riphean carbonate rocks of the Bashkir mega-anticline, western Urals

In the Bashkir mega-anticline (western Urals) stratabound magnesite, siderite, fluorite and base-metal deposits are hosted by a sequence of Riphean sediments with a thickness of more than 12 km. The giant deposits of siderite (Bakal) and sparry magnesite (Satka) belong to the largest known mineral deposits of this type on Earth but are still disputed with respect to their origin. Both the Fe- and Mg-carbonate ores are clearly characterized by mimetic preservation of sedimentary and diagenetic textures of the host carbonate sediments, giving evidence of epigenetic metasomatic replacement. In the stratiform magnesite deposits of Satka, O- and C-isotopes, REE pattern and the lithostratigraphic position of the ore, point to the reflux of early diagenetic Mg-rich brines being responsible for the selective replacement of brecciated dolomite. The Bakal siderite deposits are hosted by Lower Riphean carbonate rocks and are controlled by a Lower to Middle Riphean unconformity marked by deep erosion and subsequent transgression-related sedimentation of coarse clastics. Their independence of carbonate lithofacies and their trace element distribution are indicative of metasomatic processes. Fe-bearing fluids have probably been generated by low-grade metamorphic (catagenetic) devolatization from underlying argillites, causing the metasomatic formation of large siderite ore bodies in the Bakal carbonates due to the focusing of the fluid flow by the overlying Mid-Riphean coarse clastics.     

湘中锡矿山锑矿床的Sr同位素地球化学

对湘中锡矿山锑矿床围岩灰岩、硅化灰岩、煌斑岩和脉石矿物进行了系统的Sr同位素研究。结果表明，矿区围岩发生了隐性蚀变，灰岩中Sr亏损，而^87Sr/^86Sr高于同时代的海相碳酸盐，这种隐性蚀变很可能是水／岩反应所致。矿体附近的硅化灰岩中Sr更加亏损，而^87Sr/^86Sr明显增加。成矿期方解石的^87Sr/^86Sr较高，成矿体系中变化的W／R比造成了方解石中^87Sr/^86Sr值的明显波动。成矿流体为一富放射成因^87Sr的溶液。成矿流体来自或流经基底地层，流体中的Sr由基底碎屑岩提供，矿质Sb也可能主要来自富Sb的元古宇基底。水／岩反应的理论模拟显示，锡矿山成矿流体中的Sr约为3．0μg/g，^87Sr/^86Sr为０．７１７；蚀变－成矿体系为一开放体系，矿石的沉淀机制主要为水／岩反应，成矿体系中W／R 比较高。     

秦岭凤太矿田层控铅锌(铜)矿床的氧化硅产出特征及其硅质来源

秦岭凤太矿田的所有铅锌(铜)矿床中都含有大量的氧化硅，前人资料中往往以沉积或蚀变单一形成方式论其成因，非此即彼。本文提出氧化硅有三种产出类型，以同生沉积型为主，其次为成岩后生阶段交代灰岩者，第三类为造山期形成的脉体。三类氧化硅的产出特征有许多不同，但硅质来源一致，即均来自深部地层和岩石中循环的含矿热液。对矿床中氧化硅的研究不仅有助于深入探讨矿床的成因，而且对于该类矿床的勘查有较重要的意义。     

繁昌桃冲铁矿成因探讨

The problems of the formation conditions for stratiform skarns and the genesis of the Taochong iron deposits are dealt with in this paper. Following is a summary of this discussion: 1. Stratiform skarns in this area occur in carbonate rocks of the Upper and Middle Carboniferous Period and the lower part of the Permian Qixia Group. No outcropping or concealed igneous bodies have ever been found, let alone any indications of an igneous contact zone or a corresponding zonality from "dry" skarn to "wet" skarn. The mineral facies and zonation of the skarns depend predominantly on the properties of the initial host rocks, and the development of skarns seems to have had much to do with chemical potential of silicon in these host rocks. As a result of the reaction of iron-bearing carbonates with siliceous materials in the rocks, iron-bearing silicates were formed, which in turn were transformed by pneumato-hydrothermal processes of the later stage. The stratiform skarns of this area, therefore, probably fall into the category of stratabound skarns subjected to transformation of thermometamorphism. 2. The iron deposits bear undisputable stratabound characteristics. The positions of ore-bearing beds and the petrological features as well as the mineral associations all point to a sedimentary ore-forming process of iron-carbonate (siderite). The presumption of siderite ore source is supported by the following facts: (l) Remnants of sedimentary siderite which survived the metamorphism have recently been observed in magnetite ore from neighbouring Xinqiao mining area. Siderite can have as many as 12.07% Fe⁺⁺ and, after corrosion, shows oolitic texture. (2) The ore is mainly of calcite/ dolomite- magnetite type. Mineral associations are quite simple and sulfides are rarely seen. (3) A comparison of the analytical data suggests that the content of organic carbon in iron ore decreases due to oxidation caused by metamorphism but is still higher than that in magnetite of contact- metasomatic skarn. (4) The paleogeographic reconstruction shows that this area was once an ancient underwater uplift favorable for the precipitation of iron carbonates. After its formation, the siderate bed underwent thermodynamic metamorphism and was hence decomposed into magnetite, which was then subjected to the superimposed transformation by subsequent hydrothermal fluids, leading to the partial activation and migration of iron matter and thus the formation of such ore as hematite (specularite) at shallow depth of the Changlongshan mining area. In brief, this deposit has a complex genesis: it experienced sedimentation, thermal metamorphism and transformation by hydrothermal fluids.     

兰坪金顶跑马坪铅锌矿床幕式流体混合成矿作用——矿石组构证据

滇西北金顶巨型Zn-Pb矿田产于兰坪晚中生代—新生代盆地中北部,对其成矿作用机制仍存在分歧。跑马坪铅锌矿床是其北东部的一个大型隐伏矿床,由众多规模不等、呈筒柱状、大脉状及不规则囊状的矿体(群)组成。大量的地质填图及坑道观察表明,该矿床的形成严格受北西向逆断层破碎带的控制,矿体就位于云龙组(Ey)砂泥岩不整合面下伏的三合洞组(T3s)碎裂状灰岩、砂结灰岩质角砾岩内;断层破碎带中的矿化更强,而旁侧的次级裂隙多被砖红色砂泥岩充填。依据矿物组合及矿石组构特点,自矿体中心向外,依次可分为致密块状富锌矿带、脉状细粒硫化物矿化带、脉状胶粒状硫化物矿化带、方解石-天青石-铁氧化物矿化带和碳酸盐化带5个矿化带,各带之间多为渐变过渡关系。显微镜、扫描电镜观测和能谱面扫描分析发现,矿石中存在代表流体混合成矿特征的环-胶状构造及包含结构等显微组构,指示富含金属离子及硫酸盐的卤水与富含还原性硫的流体在高渗透性碎裂状灰岩或灰岩质角砾岩中混合而快速沉淀成矿。因此,逆断层控制的幕式流体混合作用可能是跑马坪铅锌矿床的重要成矿机制。     

A Sr isotope study on fluorite and siderite from post-orogenic mineral veins in the eastern Harz Mountains,Germany

Rb–Sr isotope data for siderite and fluorite from sediment-hosted epithermal mineral veins in the eastern Harz Mountains (Germany) are presented. Several fluorite and siderite-bearing paragenetic stages have been proposed for these veins, with the most important mineralization being related to a quartz–sulfide and a subsequent calcite–fluorite–quartz stage, which occurred at 226±1 and 209±2 Ma, respectively. Our Rb–Sr data do not permit the identification of distinct generations of siderite and fluorite, but rather reveal straight internal mixing relations, reflecting mixing of fluids or differential fluid–rock interaction processes. This indicates merely two significant phases of mineral deposition related to the quartz–sulfide and calcite–fluorite–quartz stages. It is shown that the Paleozoic sedimentary host rocks of the veins are the most likely source for the siderite Sr, whereas fluorite displays a two-component mixture between sedimentary Sr and radiogenic Sr derived from locally occurring Permian metavolcanic rocks. Editorial handling: B. Lehmann     

Macrotextures,microtextures, and carbonate-sulfide relationships in stratiform,carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb orebodies of Silvermines,Ireland

Ore-stage carbonates of the Silvermines stratiform orebodies have increased Zn and Pb and high Fe and Mn content. A major microtexture observed is produced by the replacement of carbonate allochems by dolomite, Fe dolomite, and siderite followed by the replacement of carbonates by sulfides. Generally, the process of replacement took place while the former fabric of the host carbonates was preserved. The reactivity of metal carbonates with sulfur favored the concentration of Pb and Zn in the sulfide and of Fe and Mn in the carbonate form. Sulfide-carbonate reactions probably maintained a high permeability in the ore zone over an extended period of time eventually producing a high-grade ore from solutions rich in Fe and Mn but poor in Zn and Pb. Initial porosity and permeability created by gravity flows controlled the mineralizing process at the beginning, but later stages were probably controlled by replacements, i.e., sulfide-carbonate reactions.     

REE geochemistry of ore zones in the archean auriferous schist belts of the eastern Dharwar Craton, south India

The eastern Dharwar Craton of southern India includes at least three ∼ 2700Ma supracrustal belts (schist belts) which have mesothermal, quartz-carbonate vein gold mineralization emplaced within the sheared metabasalts. In the Hutti and the Kolar schist belts, the host rocks are amphibolites and the ore veins have been flanked by only a thin zone of biotitic alteration; in the Ramagiri belt, however, the host rocks to the veins have been affected by more extensive but lower temperature alteration by fluids. The rare earth element (REE) geochemistry of the host metabasalts, alteration zones, ore veins and the bulk sulfides separated from the ore veins and the alteration zones suggest that

繁昌桃冲铁矿成因探讨

桃冲铁矿,开采历史悠久,由于其品位富,以平炉富矿为主要矿石类型,受到了重视。有关矿床的成因也一直被人们所注意。自三十年代提出火成接触变质——热液成因的观点以来(谢家荣、程裕淇1935),人们习惯于将矿床划归于矽卡岩型。作者通过野外调查和初步研究之后,对本区铁矿的成因产生了疑问。本文就现有资料的分析,对层状矽卡岩的形成条件和铁矿的成因,做如下讨论。     

地幔流体在滇西富碱斑岩成岩成矿过程中的作用——地质年代学和同位素地球化学制约

滇西金沙江哀牢山断裂以东广泛发育富碱斑岩型多金属矿床,其富碱斑岩体中有多处产出深源岩石包体。对包体岩石和寄主富碱斑岩及其成矿石英脉的地质年代学研究显示,深源岩石包体的成岩年龄大于寄主富碱斑岩,而富碱斑岩的成岩与成矿是基本同时的。结合铅硅锶钕同位素地球化学研究表明,在富碱岩浆的成岩过程中,伴随富硅成矿流体对围岩和岩体的交代蚀变,并与地壳岩石一定程度混染而实现成矿作用。这种富硅成矿流体作用实质上是地幔流体作用在地壳中成矿作用的延续。据此,从地幔流体交代矿物的结晶年龄(116.0 Ma)到富硅成矿流体年龄(51.2 Ma),揭示地幔流体作用贯穿于富碱岩浆成岩成矿的全过程。正是这一地幔流体作用过程,导致Si、Al、Na、K及其它硅不相容元素和成矿元素富集,进而导致其Sr-Nd同位素特征由亏损地幔向富集地幔过渡,并引起从岩体→围岩对应、从高温→低温的系列成矿效应。也正是这种流体作用,构成滇西新生代广泛成矿的内在统一制约因素和大型-超大型矿床形成的重要地球化学背景。     

Petrographic and geochemical arguments for hydrothermal formation of the Ouenza siderite deposit (NE Algeria)

The Ouenza siderite deposit is located proximal to evaporitic diapirs of Triassic age. Mineralization occurs mainly in Aptian neritic limestones which host important iron concentrations (120–150 MT) and minor Pb, Zn, Cu, Ba and F occurrences. The iron ore consists of iron carbonate minerals which have been oxidized partially to hematite. Fine-grained ankerite and siderite replace limestones, whereas sparry ankerite and siderite were emplaced in veins. Limited variation in the chemical and isotopic compositions of ankerite and siderite were observed, which indicate that they precipitated from the same fluid. Stable isotope compositions (δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C) of iron carbonates and limestones allow estimation of the isotopic composition of the mineralizing fluid and precipitation temperature: δ¹⁸O = 7.5‰ SMOW, T = 100–120 °C. Later deposition of Pb, Zn, Cu, Ba and F minerals is controlled by fractures oriented NE–SW and SE–NW. Fluid inclusion studies of quartz yield salinities of 18–22 wt.% equivalent NaCl and homogenization temperatures between 150 and 180 °C. These values are similar to those of Mississippi Valley type deposits which are associated with basinal brines. Received: 4 January 1996 / Accepted: 17 July 1996     

Mineralogical and sulfur isotopic characteristics of Archean greenstone belt-hosted gold mineralization at the Tau deposit of the Mupane gold mine,Botswana

The Mupane gold deposit, which is one of the numerous gold occurrences in the Tati Greenstone Belt in the northeastern part of Botswana, consists of four orebodies, namely Tau, Tawana, Kwena, and Tholo deposits. The present research, which focuses on the genesis of the Tau deposit, was based on ore petrography, mineral chemistry of sulfides, and sulfur isotope data. Mineralogical characteristics of the host rocks indicate that banded iron formation at the Tau deposit includes iron oxides (magnetite), carbonates (siderite and ankerite), silicates (chlorite and amphibole), and sulfides (arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite). The deposit features arsenopyrite-rich zones associated with biotite-chlorite veins, which are indicative of the precipitation of arsenopyrite concomitant with potassic alteration. The replacement of magnetite by pyrrhotite in some samples suggests that sulfidation was likely the dominant gold precipitation mechanism because it is considered to have destabilized gold-thiocomplexes in the ore-forming fluids. Based on textural relationships and chemical composition, arsenopyrite is interpreted to reflect two generations. Arsenopyrite 1 is possibly early in origin, sieve textured with abundant inclusions of pyrrhotite. Arsenopyrite 1 was then overgrown by late arsenopyrite 2 with no porous textures and rare inclusions of pyrrhotite. Gold mineralization was initiated by focused fluid flow and sulfidation of the oxide facies banded iron formation, leading to an epigenetic gold mineralization. The mineralogical assemblages, textures, and mineral chemistry data at the Tau gold deposit revealed two-stage gold mineralizations commencing with the deposition of invisible gold in arsenopyrite 1 followed by the later formation of native gold during hydrothermal alteration and post-depositional recrystallization of arsenopyrite 1. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometric analysis of arsenopyrite from the Tau deposit revealed that the hydrothermal event responsible for the formation of late native gold also affected the distribution of other trace elements within the grains as evidenced by varying trace elements contents in arsenopyrite 1 and arsenopyrite 2. The range of δ³⁴S of gold-bearing assemblages from the Tau deposit is restricted from +1.6 to +3.9‰, which is typical of Archean orogenic gold deposits and indicates that overall reduced hydrothermal conditions prevailed during the gold mineralization process at the Tau deposit. The results from this study suggest that gold mineralization involved multi-processes such as sulfidation, metamorphism, deformation, hydrothermal alteration, and gold remobilization.     

Phosphorite-hosted zinc and lead mineralization in the Sekarna deposit (Central Tunisia)

The Sekarna Zn–Pb deposit is located in Central Tunisia at the northeastern edge of the Cenozoic Rohia graben. Mineralization comprises two major ore types: (1) disseminated Zn–Pb sulfides that occur as lenses in sedimentary phosphorite layers and (2) cavity-filling zinc oxides (calamine-type ores) that crosscut Late Cretaceous and Early Eocene limestone. We studied Zn sulfide mineralization in the Saint Pierre ore body, which is hosted in a 5-m-thick sedimentary phosphorite unit of Early Eocene age. The sulfide mineralization occurs as replacements of carbonate cement in phosphorite. The ores comprise stratiform lenses rich in sphalerite with minor galena, Fe sulfides, and earlier diagenetic barite. Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analyses of sphalerite and galena show a wide range of minor element contents with significant enrichment of cadmium in both sphalerite (6,000–20,000 ppm) and galena (12–189 ppm). The minor element enrichments likely reflect the influence of the immediate organic-rich host rocks. Fluid inclusions in sphalerite give homogenization temperatures of 80–130°C. The final ice melting temperatures range from −22°C to −11°C, which correspond to salinities of 15–24 wt.% NaCl eq. and suggest a basinal brine origin for the fluids. Sulfur isotope analyses show uniformly negative values for sphalerite (−11.2‰ to −9.3‰) and galena (−16‰ to −12.3‰). The δ³⁴S of barite, which averages 25.1‰, is 4‰ higher than the value for Eocene seawater sulfate. The sulfur isotopic compositions are inferred to reflect sulfur derivation through bacterial reduction of contemporaneous seawater sulfate, possibly in restricted basins where organic matter was abundant. The Pb isotopes suggest an upper crustal lead source.     

Fluid inclusion and carbon, oxygen, and strontium isotope study of the Polaris Mississippi Valley-type Zn–Pb deposit, Canadian Arctic Archipelago: implications for ore genesis

The Polaris deposit is one of the largest Mississippi Valley-type deposits in the world, with 22 million tonnes of ore at 14% Zn and 4% Pb contained in a single, compact orebody surrounded by dolomitized host rocks. Using detailed sampling of carbonates in the orebody and the dolostone halo, this paper aims to characterize the temporal and spatial evolution of the mineralizing system, and to understand the mechanisms that controlled the accumulation of this large, compact Zn–Pb deposit. Five types of dolomite have been distinguished, including three replacement (RD) and two pore-filling dolomites (PD). The paragenetic order is RD1, RD2, RD3, PD1, and PD2. Pore-filling calcite (PC) postdates all other minerals. In most cases, sulfides and dolomite did not co-precipitate, but sphalerite and galena largely overlap with RD3 and PD1. Various dolomites are dissolved or replaced by sulfide-precipitating fluids; sulfides in turn can be overgrown by dolomites. Colloform texture in sphalerite is widespread. Fluid inclusions were studied in RD3, PD1, PD2, sphalerite, and PC. The overall ranges of homogenization temperatures (T _h) and last ice-melting temperatures (T _m-ice) for fluid inclusions in dolomites and sphalerite are from 67 to 141 °C and from −46.7 to −27.0 °C, respectively, consistent with warm basinal brines with high salinities and Ca/Na ratios. Gas chromatographic analysis of these fluid inclusions indicates low concentrations of hydrocarbons (<0.06 mol%). C, O, and Sr isotopes were analyzed for all dolomites and PC, as well as for the fine-grained host limestone and early diagenetic calcite (SC–RC). The isotopic values of RD2, RD3, PD1, and PD2 cluster tightly and form largely overlapping domains. With respect to the host limestone, they are depleted in ¹⁸O, similar in δ¹³C, and slightly enriched in ⁸⁷Sr. There are no regular spatial variations for fluid inclusion and isotope data, indicating an overall geochemical homogeneity in the hydrothermal system. However, certain samples close to the fracture zones in the orebody with slightly elevated T _h and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values and depleted δ¹⁸O values suggest that the fracture zone was the conduit for the hot brines. Based on the geological and geochemical characteristics of the deposit, we propose that sulfide precipitation at Polaris was caused by mixing of a reduced, metal-rich, sulfur-poor fluid with a reduced, metal-poor, sulfur-rich fluid at the site of mineralization. The metal-carrying fluid ascended along fractures from below the deposit and was hotter than the host rocks, whereas the reduced sulfur-carrying fluid was delivered to the site of mineralization laterally and was in thermal equilibrium with the host rocks. This model can readily explain the dissolution of dolomite during sulfide precipitation and the abundance of colloform sphalerite, as well as the low concentrations of hydrocarbons in fluid inclusions. Accepted: 20 December 1999     

Polymetallic sulfide ores hosted in Late Permian carbonate at the Alanish locality,northern Iraq: petrography and mineral chemistry

Polymetallic sulfide ores (Zn, Pb, Fe, Cu, Ag, and Cd) found in the Alanish locality of northern Iraq are hosted by dolostone in the Late Permian Chia Zairi Formation. The Alanish locality is one of several Zn–Pb deposits that are widespread in northern Iraq, situated along the northern passive margin of the Arabian plate. This paper describes the ore deposit classification, mineral chemistry, and paragenetic sequence of the area and proposes an ore formation model. We report the presence of acanthite and greenockite for the first time in Iraq. A brine solution derived from the sedimentary basin formed the primary sulfide ore minerals (sphalerite, galena, acanthite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, greenockite, and marcasite). The pre-tectonic mineralization is characterized by replacement textures including (1) high-Fe, low-Zn, dark-colored, coarse-grained sphalerite; (2) deformed anisotropic coarse-grained galena; and, (3) idiomorphic cubes of crushed pyrite. Conversely, the post-tectonic mineralization is characterized by open-space filling textures, including (1) low-Fe, high-Zn, light-colored, fine aggregated sphalerite; (2) fine-grained galena; and, (3) the existence of acanthite and marcasite. Although galena is an Ag carrier, both mineralization phases contained non-argentiferous galena. Non-sulfides (smithsonite, cerussite, and goethite) have replaced older sulfides in many areas due to supergene process. Gangue minerals present are dolomite, calcite, barite, and siderite. Open spaces and cavity filling of small paleo-karsts, replacement, veins, and veinlets are common features of the ore body. Metals were sourced from brines generated in the sedimentary basin, whereas sulfur was derived from nearby evaporates. Sediment compaction and tectonic activity, probably during Late Cretaceous, were the driving forces that squeezed and moved ore-bearing fluids derived from the sedimentary basin. Multiple stages of ore-bearing fluids were epigenetically intruded into the Late Paleozoic dolostone, forming an epigenetic strata-bound Mississippi Valley-type deposit precipitated under a temperature of 120 °C, as indicated by the cadmium fractionation in sphalerite and galena. Dolomitization and tectonic activity provided the necessary permeability for accumulating ores. The main ore body is directly connected to a fault plane and to adjacent dolostone that is frequently fractured and brecciated.     

Isotopic characteristics of the ermakovskoe fluorite–bertrandite–phenakite deposit (Western Transbaikalia)

Isotope-geochemical study of the Ermakovskoe fluorine–beryllium deposit was carried out to estimate the ore sources and role of host carbonate rocks in its formation. We analyzed oxygen and carbon isotope compositions in marbles, skarn carbonates, ore and post-ore parageneses; oxygen isotope compositions in oxides, silicates, apatite; and sulfur isotope composition in sulfides and sulfates. Sources of fluids participating in the rock and ore formation were determined using hydrogen and oxygen isotope compositions in hydroxyl-bearing minerals: phlogopite from marbles, vesuvian from skarns, eudidymite and bertrandite from ore parageneses, and bavenite of the post-ore stage. Isotopic studies suggest crustal source of sulfur, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, while oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions in the hydroxyl-bearing minerals points to the contribution of meteoric waters in the formation of the fluorine-beryllium ores.     

Geological context,mineralization, and timing of the Juramento sediment-hosted stratiform copper–silver deposit,Salta district,northwestern Argentina

The Juramento deposit in northwestern Argentina exhibits several readily visible general characteristics of sediment-hosted stratiform copper (SSC) mineralization. It consists of fine-grained disseminated base-metal sulfides within marine to lacustrine graybeds (the basal whitish Late Cretaceous Lecho Sandstone and shallow-water carbonates of the overlying Maastrichtian Yacoraite Formation) that overlie a thick sequence of redbeds (the Pirgua Subgroup). The property has been examined and drilled in three successive exploration programs as a possible analog of world-class mineralization in the copperbelts of central Africa and the Kupferschiefer. The present report provides specific field and laboratory results that confirm the classification as SSC-type mineralization. The host graybeds are the basal sandstone and overlying oolitic and stromatolitic units of the Yacoraite Formation, which are shown from textural studies to be carbonaceous and to have initially contained very fine-grained, disseminated, syndiagenetic pyrite. These sediments would have been sufficiently porous and permeable in early diagenetic time to allow an infiltration of metalliferous fluids from the underlying redbeds, resulting in the observed progressive replacement of in situ pyrite by common base-metal sulfides (sphalerite, galena, argentiferous tetrahedrite, and copper-rich sulfides: first chalcopyrite, then bornite, and finally chalcocite). Sulfur isotope analyses indicate that a portion of the sulfur of ore-stage sulfides is isotopically heavier than that of pyrite, possibly due to a contribution from associated gypsum. Ore-stage sulfides are zoned vertically and obliquely through the mineralized zones, from cupriferous sulfides at low stratigraphic levels to lead- and zinc-rich mineralization above, with unreplaced pyrite remaining within upper Yacoraite strata. The zoned sulfides and their replacement textures, the peneconformable configuration of the mineralized zones, and the position of ore-stage mineralization adjacent to a stratigraphically defined redox transition from redbeds upward into graybeds indicate an overprint of copper (and accompanying ore-stage metals) on originally pyritic graybeds. The influx of ore-stage metals, presumably in an oxidized low-temperature brine, terminated with a silicification event that effectively sealed the host carbonates. These observations and the overall genetic interpretation are consistent with the general deposit-scale genetic model for early diagenetic SSC mineralization. The regional geologic context is also consistent with its classification as a SSC deposit: It is hosted by post-oxyatmoversion sediments and was formed in association with evaporites at a low paleolatitude in a major intracontinental rift system.     

Geochemical Trace of Silicon Isotopes of Intrusions and Ore Veins Related to Alkali-rich Porphyry Deposits in Western Yunnan, China

Western Yunnan is the well-known polymetallic province in China. It is characterized by copper-gold mineralization related to Cenozoic alkali-rich porphyry. This paper analyzes the silicon isotope data obtained from four typical alkali-rich porphyry deposits based on the dynamic fractionation principle of silicon isotope. The study shows that the ore materials should originate mainly from alkali-rich magmas, together with silicon-rich mineralizing fluids. The process of mineralization was completed by auto-metasomatism, i.e. silicon-rich mineralizing fluids (including alkali-rich porphyry and wall-rock strata) replaced and altered the country rocks and contaminated with crustal rocks during the crystallization of alkali-rich magmas. Such a process is essentially the continuance of the metasomatism of mantle fluids in crust's mineralization. This provides important evidence of silicon isotopic geochemistry for better understanding the mineralization of the Cenozoic alkali-rich porphyry polymetallic deposi     

Formation and age of sphalerite mineralization in carbonate rocks of Bajocian age in the Swiss Jura Mountains: evidence of Mesozoic hydrothermal activity

A combination of petrographic and geochemical techniques was applied to better constrain the origin and evolution of the fluid systems responsible for the formation of disseminated, Cd-rich (up to 0.6 wt%), sphalerite (ZnS) mineralization in the northeastern part of the Jura Mountains, Switzerland. The Rb–Sr ages of sphalerite samples indicate that a main phase of sphalerite formation occurred near the boundary between the late Middle and early Late Jurassic, at around 162 Ma. The negative δ³⁴S values (?22.3 to ?5.3 ‰) suggest that biogenic sulfide sulfur was involved in ZnS precipitation. The strontium isotope composition is more radiogenic than that of contemporaneous seawater, reflecting the interaction of mineralizing fluids with silicate rocks. Lead isotope signatures are very uniform (²⁰⁶Pb^/204Pb = 18.63–18.67, ²⁰⁷Pb^/204Pb = 15.63–15.64, ²⁰⁸Pb^/204Pb = 38.51–38.63), indicating an isotopically well-homogenized fluid system. The basement rocks underlying the Jurassic strata are considered to be the main source of metals for the sphalerite mineralization. The migration of deep-sourced hydrothermal saline metal-bearing fluids into the Bajocian host carbonates containing sedimentary reduced sulfur resulted in the precipitation of sulfides. The period of sphalerite formation near the Middle–Late Jurassic boundary is characterized by enhanced tectonic and hydrothermal activity in Europe, related to the opening of the Central Atlantic and tectonic/thermal subsidence during spreading of the Alpine Tethys. Our study provides evidence that the Bajocian carbonate rocks in the Jura Mountains area were affected by the circulation of deep-sourced metal-bearing hydrothermal fluids in response to these continent-wide tectonothermal events. The presence of sphalerite mineralization and associated geochemical anomalies in Zn and Cd contents in carbonate rocks may also be used to trace basement features.     

The Chaqupacha Mississippi Valley-type Pb–Zn deposit,central Tibet: Ore formation in a fold and thrust belt of the India–Asia continental collision zone

The newly discovered Chaqupacha Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) Pb–Zn deposit in central Tibet has been found to be helpful for understanding MVT ore formation relative to tectonic evolution of a foreland fold and thrust belt. The deposit lies in the Tuotuohe area of the western Fenghuo Shan-Nangqian fold and thrust belt of the India–Asia continental collision zone. It contains NNW-striking and folded Late Permian strata including an upper clastic unit and an underlying limestone unit. The strata overlie late Oligocene clastic rocks through a south-dipping reverse fault that is associated with regional northward thrusting during the Paleogene. The Late Permian and late Oligocene strata are unconformably overlain by flat-lying early Miocene marl and mudstone of the Wudaoliang Formation. Lead and zinc ores are mainly hosted by pre-ore dissolution and collapse breccias in the Late Permian limestone. The style of mineralization is epigenetic, as shown by replacement of the pre-ore dissolution breccia matrix and open-space-fill by galena, sphalerite, calcite, and minor barite and pyrite. δ³⁴S values of the main sulfide galena range from − 27.5‰ to + 12.6‰. These features, together with the lack of magmatic activity during the mineralization, suggest that Chaqupacha is an MVT deposit. Subordinate mineralization is also present in the early Miocene Wudaoliang Formation marl and the paleokarst breccia which contains matrix compositionally equivalent to strata of the Wudaoliang Formation. The mineralization shares similar mineral associations and textures with the pre-ore dissolution breccia-hosted mineralization. Thus, the Pb and Zn mineralization in the entire deposit probably resulted from the same mineralizing event, which is younger than the youngest ore-hosting rocks (i.e., the early Miocene Wudaoliang Formation). Considering that thrusting in the Tuotuohe area had ceased prior to deposition of the Wudaoliang Formation host rocks, the mineralization at Chaqupacha post-dated the regional deformation. The Chaqupacha deposit thus provides a good example of MVT mineralization in a foreland fold and thrust belt that post-dates regional thrusting.