内蒙古哈达门沟地区黑云母击象及其构造意义

黑云母击象构造是一种快速受力、脆性变形的产物。文章阐述了内蒙古哈达门沟地区新太古界乌拉山群变质岩中的黑云母发育的击象构造特征,认为黑云母击象明显受到退变质作用和混合岩化作用及韧性剪切作用,很可能是形成于新太古代末—古元古代初呼和浩特—包头断裂和临河—集宁断裂产生的地震作用中;新太古代岩石中黑云母击象的存在也证明了华北地块在新太古代末—古元古代初已经具备了较强的刚度,板块构造理论适用范围的最早时限很可能向前推移到新太古代。     

Reorientation of early biotites during schistosity formation in andalusite schists, Mount Franks area, Broken Hill, N.S.W.

Study of schistosity formation in andalusite—grade mica schists from part of the Pre-cambrian Willyama Complex in New South Wales is facilitated by the coarse grained nature of the rocks, and by the presence of deformation indicators provided by pre-S₂ biotite. S₂, the dominant schistosity, is generally domainal. It is defined by the alternation of mica (M) and quartz + mica (QM) domains. M domains are dominated by biotite aggregates with a very marked shape (but not a crystallographic) orientation parallel to S₂, and by S₂ muscovite laths. QM domains are dominated by kinked biotite grains, biotites aligned across S₂, and biotite lozenges and grains in which (001) traces are aligned oblique to S₂. Biotite grains in these domains are less elongate than those in M domains. Individual biotite grains have been reoriented by kinking and corrosion; some homo- geneous glide on (001) may also have taken place. The variation in these deformation effects indicates that M domains represent zones of high strain with respect to the QM domains. M domains have undergone a history of shortening, rotation, diffusive mass transfer, volume reduction and syntectonic crystallization of muscovite. QM domains have also undergone syntectonic crystallization of muscovite, but their history is marked by less rotation, shortening, mass transfer and volume reduction than that of M domains. The greater activity of mass transfer mechanisms in M domains suggests that they are strain dependent, and proceed more easily in more highly deformed grains. Metamorphic driving forces associated with chemical reaction may play a part in the generation of these mass transfer mechanisms.     

多相糜棱岩内第二相对应变局部化的影响——以秦岭群花岗质糜棱岩为例

糜棱岩韧性变形发生的应变局部化过程,尤其是多相糜棱岩第二相对基质相变形的影响一直是显微构造研究难点.研究表明糜棱岩借助颗粒边界滑移实现多相混合,形成多矿物相集合体.在多相糜棱岩内,第二相在基质相颗粒边界施加齐纳阻力,牵制基质相颗粒边界的迁移速率,破坏基质相颗粒的动态平衡过程,使基质相颗粒位于古应力计对应的颗粒粒度以下,导致基质相整体的表面积增大,促进扩散交换过程,提高了扩散蠕变,降低了基质相位错蠕变和结晶学优选方位(CPO)形成的效率,使变形机制从颗粒粒径不敏感蠕变机制(GSI)过渡为颗粒粒径敏感蠕变机制(GSS).另外,多相糜棱岩内的第二相具有诱导应变局部化的效应,使塑性应变局部化更为强烈,引起物质强度的变化,进而引起岩石变形过程和岩石圈流变行为的改变.选取秦岭群花岗质糜棱岩进行多相矿物糜棱岩定量化研究,结果显示花岗质糜棱岩伴随着云母含量的增多以及各相混合程度的增大,石英的颗粒粒度明显减小,CPO强度显著降低,基质相显微变形受第二相控制逐渐增强.     

The development of slaty cleavage, fleurieu peninsula, south australia

In low grade, biotite-rich metasiltstones and slates from the western side of Fleurieu Peninsula, the slaty cleavage is defined by elongate deformed old biotites and by the coincident elongate dimensions and (001) planes of thin, well aligned new biotites. Histograms of frequency versus (001)-S₁ angle (S₁ defined by aligned thin muscovite used as the reference plane) were determined in thin section for both populations. The old biotites show a symmetrical bimodal distribution of (001) about S₁, with maxima at around 20° either side ofS₁. This distribution, together with the preserved intracrystalline strain, indicates that these old grains deformed largely by slip on (001) with some modification of grain boundaries by diffusive transfer. The new biotite grains are very well aligned (standard deviation 3.8°) and show no sign of mechanical deformation. They have not been mechanically rotated into alignment but must have nucleated and grown in a specific orientation. The proportion of new to old grains increases with metamorphic grade, causing a rapid strengthening of the crystallographic alignment. In slates and phyllites with similar microstructure, the mica fabric determined by X-ray texture goniometry cannot be used as a quantitative measure of the geometry and magnitude of the bulk strain, as the intensity of the crystallographic fabric will be strongly influenced by the proportion of new mica, which is itself greatly affected by the metamorphic grade during slaty cleavage formation.     

Effects of progressive mylonitization on Ar retention in biotites from the Santa Rosa mylonite zone,California, and thermochronologic implications

The Santa Rosa mylonite zone developed predominantly from a granodiorite protolith in the eastern margin of the Peninsular Ranges batholith. A wide variation in K−Ar biotite dates within the zone is shown to reflect the times of cooling through closure temperatures whose variability is chiefly a result of deformation-induced reduction in grain size. We suggest that such variation generally may be exploited to place constraints on the timing of deformation episodes. Previous workers have shown that deformation in the Santa Rosa mylonite zone involved the formation of mylonites and an imbricate series of low-angle faults which divide the area into structural units. Field work, petrographic studies, and TEM analysis of deformation mechanisms in biotite show that the granodiorite mylonite, the lowermost structural unit, formed below the granodiorite solidus. The granodiorite mylonite varies from protomylonite to ultramylonite, with regions of high strain distributed heterogeneously within the zone. Previously reported biotite and hornblende K−Ar dates from the granodiorite protolith below (82–89 Ma) and the Asbestos Mountain granodiorite above (61–68 Ma) the mylonite zone indicate dramatically dissimilar thermal histories for the lowermost and uppermost structural units. Other workers' fission track dates on sphene, zircon, and apatite from the granodiorite mylonite and the Asbestos Mountain granodiorite suggest thermal homogenization and rapid cooling to ∼100° C by ca 60 Ma. Within and adjacent to the mylonite zone, K−Ar dates on 5 samples of biotite from variably deformed granodiorite range from 62–76 Ma; dates are not correlated with structural depth but clearly decrease with degree of deformation and concomitant grain size reduction. ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar incremental heating analyses of biotite from the granodiorite protolith reveals no evidence of excess argon and produces a relatively flat age spectrum. ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar incremental heating analysis of biotite from the granodiorite mylonite discloses discordance consistent with ³⁹Ar recoil loss. K analysis of samples, allowing K−Ar dates to be calculated, is therefore recommended as an adjunct to ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar step heating analysis in rocks that have experienced similar deformation. During mylonitization, biotite grain size reduction through intracrystalline cataclasis results in estimated grain dimensions as small as 0.05 μm locally within porphyroclasts as large as 1 mm. Because biotite compositions are relatively Uniform (Fe/[Fe+Mg+Mn+Ti+Al^VI]=0.47–0.52) and show no systematic variation with grain size, compositional dependence of activation energy and diffusivity can be eliminated as sources of variation in Ar retention. Ar closure temperatures, calculated with appropriate diffusion parameters for the observed grain sizes, are in the range ∼220–280° C and define a cooling curve consistent with a thermal history intermediate between those of the granodiorite protolith below and the Asbestos Mountain granodiorite above the mylonite zone. Changes in the slope of the cooling curve indicate that the main deformation episode initiated at or above ca 330° C (∼80 Ma), above the closure temperature for thermally activated diffusion of argon in biotite, and continued to a minimum of ca 220–260° C (∼62 Ma).     

Interpretation on the basis of Hertzian theory of a spiral carbonatite structure at Homa Mountain, Kenya

It is demonstrated that a cone fracture can be produced in a brittle material by a liquid “indenter”. Cone fractures of carbonatite structures can be interpreted on the basis of the Hertzian fracture theory. Tensile stresses are most important in initiating cones at shallow depths and shear stresses start cone fractures at great depths. Four stages of cone fracture can be observed in the Homa Mountain area. The spiral cone fracture at Homa Mountain and several other ring structures can be looked upon as an inherent feature of these structures and perhaps spiral cone fractures are more common than has been thought before. Twin centres can also be explained on the basis of the Hertzian theory.     

Brittle-plastic deformation in initially dry rocks at fluid-present conditions: transient behaviour of feldspar at mid-crustal levels

We present detailed microstructural and chemical analyses from an initially dry anorthositic rock deformed during wet amphibolite facies conditions. Three different domains representing the microstructural variation of the deformed samples are investigated in detail in terms of fracture morphology and mode, grain characteristics and chemistry of present phases. Results show transient deformational behaviour where a close interaction between brittle, plastic and fluid-assisted deformation mechanisms can be observed. Our analysis allows us to describe the succession, interrelationships and effects of active mechanisms with progressively increasing strain in three so-called stages. In Stage 1, initial fracturing along cleavage planes promoted fluid influx that caused fragmentation and chemical reactions, producing fine-grained mineral assemblages in the fractures. Deformation twins and dislocations developed in clast pieces due to stress relaxation. Passive rotation of conjugate fracture sets and interconnection of intracrystalline fractures formed micro-shear-zones, constituting Stage 2. Microstructures and grain relationships indicate the activity and fluctuation between fracturing, dissolution-precipitation creep, grain boundary sliding and locally dislocation creep, reflecting the transient behaviour of brittle and plastic deformation mechanisms. Further rotation and widening of fractures into overall foliation parallel shear-bands (Stage 3) promoted strain partitioning into these areas through increased fluid influx, influence of fluid-assisted grain boundary sliding, phase mixing and presence of weak phases such as white mica. We suggest that local differences in fluid availability, volume fraction of weak phases produced by fluid present metamorphic reactions coupled with volume increase and local variations in stress concentration induced transient brittle-plastic behaviour. The studied shear-zone represents an example of the transformation of a rigid dry rock to a soft wet rock during deformation through syntectonic fracturing.     

An experimental study of effect of pre‐existing fabric on deformation of foliated mylonite at high temperature and pressure

We performed deformation experiments on a foliated mylonite under high temperature and pressure conditions in this study. To investigate the effect of pre‐existing fabric on the rheology of rocks, our samples were drilled from natural mylonite with the cylinder axis parallel to the foliation (PAR) and perpendicular to the foliation (PER). We performed 25 tests on seven PAR samples and 21 tests on seven PER samples at temperatures ranging from 600 to 890 °C, confining pressures ranging from 800 to 1400 MPa, and steady‐state strain rates of 1 × 10⁻⁴, 1 × 10⁻⁵ and 2.5 × 10⁻⁶ s⁻¹. In the temperatures of 600–700 °C, the deformation is accommodated by semi‐brittle flow, with the average stress exponent being 6–7 assuming power law flow; in the temperature range of 800–890 °C, deformation is mainly by plastic flow, with an average stress exponent of n = 3 and activation energies of Q = 354 ± 52 kJ/mol (PER and PAR samples). The experimental results show that the strengths of PER samples are higher than those of PAR samples. Deformation microstructures have been studied by optical and electron microscopy. The original foliation of PER samples is destroyed by deformation and replaced by a new foliation, but the deformation of PAR samples followed the original foliation. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) measurements show a strong lattice preferred orientation (LPO) of the quartz c axis fabrics of the starting samples and deformed PER and PAR samples. However, the c axis fabric of quartz in experimentally deformed PER and PAR samples varied with temperature and strain rate is different from that seen in the starting mylonite sample. The initial quartz c axis fabric of the starting mylonite sample has been transformed into a new fabric during experimental deformation. Dehydration melting of biotite and hornblende occurred in both PER and PAR samples at temperatures of 800–890 °C. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The nature of fracturing and stress distribution in quartzite around the 1128-M (3700-FT) level of the crescent mine, Coeur d''Alene mining district, Idaho

Silver and copper are the principal ores mined from the quartzite at the Crescent mine. Both the main ore-bearing veins and foliation in the quartzite are parallel to the nearly vertical formational contacts. Anisotropy of the quartzite is indicated by both dynamic and static tests. Disking and breakage of core from holes perpendicular to the foliation are about twice what they are in core from holes parallel to foliation. Natural cleavage as well as slabbing and blasting fractures around the tunnels are also controlled by the foliation.

Extensive overcore deformation measurements indicate that most of the influence of the tunnels on the “free” stress field is between the rib and a depth of 2.7 m (1 tunnel diameter). The maximum principal stress axis in the free field is nearly horizontal; its magnitude is not much greater than the vertical component and calculations indicate a nearly hydrostatic free stress field. Stress considerably greater than the free field was measured between about 0.3–2.7 m behind the rib and is caused by a transfer of load from above the tunnel opening. Peak stress is in the vertical direction and about 1.7 m behind the rib.

An air-injection survey shows that high permeabilities are confined to the highly fractured annulus around a tunnel to a depth of at least 0.6 m. Air-injection measurements could be taken in the interval of about 0.6–1.8 m, but more fractures with high permeabilities may also be present in the annulus from about 0.6–1.2 m. Permeabilities measured deeper than about 1.8 m by the air-injection technique are either very low or nonexistent. The absence of open and noncontinuous fractures beyond about 1.8 m is also indicated by very low porosities and permeabilities of core, very high stresses (which presumably would close fractures), the lack of stains or secondary fillings in disking fractures, a conspicuous lack of ground water in the tunnels, and the fact that fractures encountered in an experimental 0.9-m tunnel did not extend into the 1.8-m tunnel that was mined over it.

Air-injection techniques exceed the accuracy of any field deformation measurement now in use, and they are sensitive to permeabilities as small as one microdarcy and to fracture widths as small as 250 nanometers. This technique was applied for future reference in mining design and, perhaps, to be used later to detect microfracturing prior to rockbursts.     

应变软化在甘肃红柳河辉长质糜棱岩形成中的作用

本文论述的辉长质糜棱岩发现于甘肃北山红柳河蛇绿岩套中。在简单说明了糜棱岩的地质背景及特征、描述了变形岩石的显微构造特征之后，重点对糜棱岩形成过程中的应变软化机制作了论述。探讨了软化岩的存在、组构调整、粒度缩小，长石的动态重结晶，水以及主导变形机制的不断调整与转化等应变软化机制，在应力作用下使岩石逐步软化过程中所起的作用，得出这种糜棱岩是在拆离剪切作用下，应力在蛇绿岩中的软化岩石辉长岩中集中，从而形     

Strain parameters of discontinuities in rock for finite element calculation

The bulk strain induced by excavation of rooms for storage of highly radioactive waste is usually unimportant, but the change in aperture and shear displacement of permeable fractures may be of practical importance. Hence, the normal and shear of such discontinuities have to be considered and are commonly predicted by using special deformation moduli termed “normal” and “shear” stiffnesses in numerical calculations. For the use of some finite element methods, these have to be converted to compression and shear moduli ,which, in turn, requires that the thickness of the discontinuity is known. The normal and shear strain can be expressed in terms of soil mechanical parameters, yielding the compression modulus M and the shear modulus G, with the required form for finite element calculations. By definition they are functions of the normal and shear stiffness K_n and K_s. It is concluded that calculation of the normal and shear strain of discontinuities with clastic fillings by the use of finite element methods and deformation moduli derived from stiffness numbers is very uncertain except when the geometry of the weaknesses can be accurately defined.     

Dislocation generation, slip systems, and dynamic recrystallization in experimentally deformed plagioclase single crystals

Three samples of gem quality plagioclase crystals of An60 were experimentally deformed at 900 °C, 1 GPa confining pressure and strain rates of 7.5–8.7×10⁻⁷ s⁻¹. The starting material is effectively dislocation-free so that all observed defects were introduced during the experiments. Two samples were shortened normal to one of the principal slip planes (010), corresponding to a “hard” orientation, and one sample was deformed with a Schmid factor of 0.45 for the principal slip system [001](010), corresponding to a “soft” orientation. Several slip systems were activated in the “soft” sample: dislocations of the [001](010) and 110(001) system are about equally abundant, whereas 110{111} and [101] in ( 31) to ( 42) are less common. In the “soft” sample plastic deformation is pervasive and deformation bands are abundant. In the “hard” samples the plastic deformation is concentrated in rims along the sample boundaries. Deformation bands and shear fractures are common. Twinning occurs in close association with fracturing, and the processes are clearly interrelated. Glissile dislocations of all observed slip systems are associated with fractures and deformation bands indicating that deformation bands and fractures are important sites of dislocation generation. Grain boundaries of tiny, defect-free grains in healed fracture zones have migrated subsequent to fracturing. These grains represent former fragments of the fracture process and may act as nuclei for new grains during dynamic recrystallization. Nucleation via small fragments can explain a non-host-controlled orientation of recrystallized grains in plagioclase and possibly in other silicate materials which have been plastically deformed near the semi-brittle to plastic transition.     

洛南-栾川断裂带（栾川段）变形特征及形成环境研究

洛南-栾川断裂带是秦岭造山带中一条著名的断裂带,是华北板块与秦岭造山带的地质分界线,其走向近东西,断裂带发育有宽坪岩群和陶湾岩群等岩石,洛南-栾川断裂带的构造作用过程及其演化对这些岩石的变形起了重要作用。因此,分析断裂带岩石的变形特征及其形成条件对于探讨洛南-栾川断裂带的构造环境以及分析古板块汇聚边界变形有重要意义。本文以洛南-栾川断裂带栾川段为主要研究对象,通过室内外变形研究及多种测试分析,认为洛南-栾川断裂带基本走向为290°,倾角为58°～89°,糜棱面理、矿物生长线理和褶皱普遍发育,具有由南向北的俯冲兼有左行平移的运动学特征。断裂带内岩石变形强烈,变形矿物主要为石英、方解石、黑云母和白云母。变形机制：石英以膨凸式和亚颗粒旋转动态重结晶为主,方解石以机械双晶和亚颗粒旋转变形为主,云母变形以应变滑劈理为主。在宽坪岩群北侧和陶湾岩群南侧主要为塑性变形,在陶湾岩群北侧主要为脆性变形。分别对应于洛南-栾川断裂带第2期由南向北的俯冲走滑构造活动和第4期由北向南的脆性逆冲推覆构造活动。通过方解石机械双晶、多硅白云母压力计、黑白云母Ti温度计、斜长角闪温度计等方法分别对洛南-栾川断裂带（栾川段）的形成环境进行了分析,得到矿物变形温度为440℃～509℃, 压力为0.4～1.4 GPa, 差异应力为0.27～0.426 GPa, 即韧性剪切带的形成环境属中温、中压条件。因此,本文认为洛南-栾川断裂带（栾川段）变形环境为中温、中压,相当于地壳浅层的构造变形环境。     

Origin of sheet structure, 1. Morphology and boundary conditions

Sheet structure, or large-scale exfoliation, is the division of a rock mass into lenses, plates or “sheets” approximately parallel to the earth's surface. Sheet fractures, which separate the plates, are characterized by surface markings resembling those formed during the brittle fracture of metals, glass and ceramics and those on joints in rock. Lineations, or hackle marks, parallel to the direction of fracture propagation, are common. Branching occurs during propagation so that the fractures appear as many echelon segments in profile. The opposing surfaces of sheet fractures observed in quarry walls and natural exposures are typically in contact. Damage, if any, to rock adjacent to sheet fractures is generally limited to a zone less than one centimeter wide. Sheets tend to parallel preferred orientations of microcracks in many rock masses. Most sheets that are exposed today are of prehistoric origin, but in some rock masses, such as Chelmsford granite in Massachusetts, new sheets continue to form.

Sheet structure forms in environments of high differential stress, dominated by large-scale compression parallel to an exposed rock surface. In parts of the Chelmsford granite the magnitude of this compression is greater than 30 MPa in the zone of sheeting. High differential stresses near the ground surface can result from several natural agents, including contemporary tectonic forces, vertical unloading of a rock mass that formed at depth under high triaxial compression, and suppression of expansion that would otherwise result from temperature increases or chemical alteration of the rock. Exfoliation of boulders during forest fires and spheroidal weathering of boulders appears to occur under similar states of stress, although the agents responsible for the stresses differ.     

糜棱岩型金矿金元素丰度与构造变形的关系

蚀变糜棱岩型金矿是一种成矿机制与放因素都与韧性剪切带及其糜棱岩密切相关的金矿床类型。研究表明：①深部韧性剪切变形是元素分异迁出区,未叠加蚀变矿化的糜棱岩变形越强,Ａｕ丰度就越低;②中浅层次变形域是Ａｕ元素聚集区,矿化发生于韧性剪切带糜棱岩抬升至较浅部位叠加了韧脆性变形阶段。构造变形超强的糜棱岩,越易叠加矿化,Ａｕ元素丰度越高;③强变形或者大构造并应力不仅是促使Ａｕ元素活化分异、形成含Ａｕ热液、使Ａ     

The deformation and recrystallization of biotite in the Woodroffe Thrust mylonite zone

The deformation and recrystallization microstructures in biotite from the Woodroffe Thrust mylonites are described and interpreted. The degree of strain causing recrystallization and the nucleation mechanisms differ across the mylonite zone. These differences are associated with the contrast in water content between the granulite and amphibolite facies felsic gneisses on either side of the zone. p]In moderately mylonitized granulite facies felsic gneisses (0.1–0.6% H₂O) subgrains form in intensely deformed host biotite and recrystallization mechanisms involve subgrain rotation both on host grain boundaries and associated with kink band bulge. In the amphibolite facies felsic gneisses (0.9–1.2% H₂O) the biotite recrystallizes by a mechanism involving localized internal kinking of the host and subsequent migration of high angle boundaries generated on the kink limbs. This combined with rotation due to the concurrent deformation generates high angle grain boundaries around the entire original kink limb and thus a new grain.     

Microfabric of mica aggregates in partly recrystallized biotite

Large biotite grains, up to 1 metre across, in a pegmatite near Broken Hill, Australia, have been heterogeneously deformed and partly recrystallized in zones of relatively high strain, probably under conditions of the lower amphibolite facies. Many of the new aggregates (which consist mainly of more magnesian biotite, with muscovite, and less abundant ilmenite and albite) have a mica preferred orientation. Some of the oriented mica aggregates have grown in kink-like deformation zones (some of which appear to have involved fracturing) and others have grown in dilatation zones (growth of mica probably keeping pace with the opening of the zones). The shapes and preferred orientation of new mica grains appear to be due to varying contributions by (a) mechanical rotation of slices cleaved parallel to (001), (b) coaxial nucleation and/or growth of new mica on rotated portions of deformed biotite, and (c) preferred nucleation and/or growth of new grains in directions of minimum mechanical constraint and maximum transport of chemical components. This preferred growth can also explain the observed high degree of elongation of the oriented mica grains.     

鄂尔多斯盆地Y区块长6致密油层裂缝特征

长6致密油层是鄂尔多斯盆地Y区块的主力产层,裂缝发育。目前单井产能低,水淹和水窜现象严重,部分水井注水困难,严重影响了开发效果。为了解决影响开发效果较为严重的裂缝问题,本文通过野外露头和岩心宏观、微观观察,注水指示曲线和压力降落试井资料分析,应力测定,停泵压力梯度与上覆应力梯度关系研究,结合沉积环境,对天然裂缝、人工裂缝发育特征,人工裂缝影响因素,天然裂缝对人工裂缝性质的影响、人工裂缝形态及分布规律等方面进行研究。结果表明：研究区长6油层宏观裂缝主要是以垂直缝为主的区域性构造裂缝,微裂缝主要是以水平缝为主的成岩缝;人工裂缝主要受控于天然裂缝,天然裂缝主要受控于砂体厚度与泥质体积分数,砂体厚度越薄越易形成天然裂缝,泥质体积分数越高越易形成变形构造。     

Subsolidus physical and chemical mixing of granite and gabbro during mylonitization, South Victoria Land, Antarctica

At Dromedary Massif, Southern Victoria Land, Antarctica, a suite of coarse-grained granite dykes cross-cuts a gabbro pluton which has been partially metamorphosed at amphibolite facies. During regional deformation, strain has been inhomogeneously distributed through the gabbro pluton and has been concentrated in granite dykes. In zones of relatively high strain, the granite dykes have developed a mylonitic fabric. A high strain gradient between granitic mylonite and metagabbroic host rock has induced isochemical mylonitization of the margin of the host. This grain size reduction allowed chemical diffusion between granitic and metagabbroic mylonites, resulting in a marginal zone of biotite-rich mylonite with intermediate composition. Biotite-rich mylonite decoupled from metagabbroic mylonite and flowed with granitic mylonite. Continued folding and transposition of granitic mylonite and biotite-rich mylonite has produced compositionally banded mylonite zones through thorough and irreversible mixing of the two lithologies.     

Titanium‐in‐biotite thermometry in porphyry copper systems: Challenges to application of the thermometer

Empirical geothermometer dealing with Ti solubility in the Fe‐Mg biotites was originally proposed for biotites in graphitic, peraluminous metapelites containing ilmenite or rutile that equilibrated roughly at 4–6 kbar. Given that biotites are abundant in the porphyry copper systems, this geothermometer has frequently been used for the determination of magmatic–hydrothermal temperatures in the porphyry copper systems. Common associations of porphyry copper deposits (PCDs), that is, low Al content of biotite, biotite chloritization (causes the biotite to become more magnesian and to lose Ti), and biotite formation by amphibole replacement, as well as disequilibrium, local equilibrium, or re‐equilibration of biotites, especially through potassic alteration, may provide significant uncertainty in the temperatures estimated a by Ti‐in‐biotite geothermometer. In addition, besides the calibration range of thermometer for pressure (400–600 MPa), the temperatures of major sulfide precipitation in PCDs (>~400°C) does not fit with the temperature range of thermometer calibration (480–800°C). Worth noting, as confirmed by fluid inclusion data in the Sarkuh PCD, regardless of presence of mineralogical requirements, obtained temperatures of sulfide mineralization using Ti in biotite thermometer could be overestimated. This may be due to the difference between general conditions of sulfide mineralization and calibration range of Ti in the biotite thermometer for pressure and temperature, as well as the metaluminous nature of biotites in PCDs.