Spatial distribution dynamics of topsoil moisture in shrub microenvironment after rain events in arid and semi-arid areas by means of high-resolution maps

Understanding the dynamic patch mosaic of topsoil moisture on arid hillsides has implications for understanding eco-geomorphic processes. The present study used high-resolution maps to investigate the spatial distribution of moisture in the topsoil on the shrub microenvironment scale, and its dynamics during the first days after rain events. These maps were acquired by a thermal infrared (TIR) method, based on close-range TIR imaging and on a model in which spatially consecutive TIR data are converted into soil moisture values. The main results show that, in addition to the general diminishing trend of topsoil moisture content, and in spite of the specific differences between the two research sites, there was, in both arid and semi-arid zones, a general spatio-temporal pattern of topsoil moisture in a shrub microenvironment during the first days after rainfall. This pattern is manifested in the presence of a changing moist patch under the shrub, and diminishing moisture content gradients, from the shrub center towards the bare soil that vary over space and time. An improved understanding of surface water resources is gained from investigations of the spatio-temporal patterns of soil moisture during and following rainfall events.     

模拟增温和改变降雨频率对干旱半干旱区土壤呼吸的影响

温度和降水是干旱半干旱区土壤呼吸的重要扰动因子,全球气候变化导致的未来干旱半干旱区增温和降水变率增大对土壤呼吸有着重要影响.研究通过人工设置P16×2.5mm、P8×5mm、P4×10mm、P2×20mm、P1×40mm的降雨频率梯度和增温2℃左右的控制试验,探讨不同降雨频率和增温处理对干旱半干旱区土壤呼吸的影响,以及...     

不同雨强对裸露坡地水土流失的影响研究

运用坡面径流小区法,研究了闽北裸露坡地水土流失与不同雨强的关系,结果表明：1）裸露坡地径流量受雨强的影响较小,小雨和中雨时径流量与雨强呈线性相关,大雨时径流量与雨强不相关．2）雨强对土壤流失量的影响高于对径流量的影响．在降雨量相近的情况下土壤流失量与平均雨强呈线性关系．3）各时段雨强与裸露坡地的土壤流失量的相关性表现为...     

不同雨强对裸露坡地水土流失的影响研究

运用坡面径流小区法,研究了闽北裸露坡地水土流失与不同雨强的关系,结果表明：1）裸露坡地径流量受雨强的影响较小,小雨和中雨时径流量与雨强呈线性相关,大雨时径流量与雨强不相关．2）雨强对土壤流失量的影响高于对径流量的影响．在降雨量相近的情况下土壤流失量与平均雨强呈线性关系．3）各时段雨强与裸露坡地的土壤流失量的相关性表现为,I10〉I30〉I60,在不同雨型时均以I10的拟合效果最好．     

Climate and surface properties: hydrological response of small arid and semi-arid watersheds

A positive relationship between annual rainfall and geomorphic processes (runoff and erosion rates) and environmental factors (water regime, soil and vegetation cover) is often assumed for arid and semi-arid areas with an annual rainfall in the range of 100–300 mm. This assumption disregards the fact that changes along a climatic gradient, at desert margins, are not limited to purely climatic factors. They are often accompanied by a parallel change in surface properties; especially the relative extent of rocky or soil covered surfaces that differ greatly in their response to rainfall. This raises the issue whether the change in surface properties along a climatic gradient enhances the assumed positive effects of rainfall increase or limits it. The hypothesis advanced in this paper is that runoff generation and rate in arid and semi-arid areas are primarily controlled by surface properties rather than by the absolute amounts of storm and annual rain amounts. Hydrological data collected at two instrumented watersheds, located one in an arid rocky area, and the second in a semi-arid soil covered area, support this hypothesis. The implications of data obtained for runoff generation and flow continuity under changing climatic conditions are analyzed. They point to the fact that the same regional climatic change may have different, and even opposite effects, on the hydrological response of different adjoining surface units. This response is expected to be strongly controlled by the specific local surface conditions that prevailed in the area prior to the climatic change.     

中国沙漠(地)深层渗漏量及动态特征

土壤水分深层渗漏是沙区水循环的重要环节,深层渗漏的定量测定对沙区水资源评估及水量平衡研究具有重要意义。本文采用YWB-01型土壤深层水量渗漏测试记录仪对中国毛乌素沙地等六大沙漠(地)降雨入渗到深层土壤的渗漏水量进行实时动态监测。结果表明:流动沙丘降雨渗漏补给量存在明显的时空差异,与降雨时空变化特征具有相对一致性,降雨格局是影响深层渗漏过程的主要因素,随降雨增大渗漏补给量增加,半干旱区降雨量与渗漏量显著正相关(p<0.05),干旱区相关性不显著(p>0.05);观测期内正镶白旗、伊金霍洛旗、阜康流动沙丘土壤200 cm以下渗漏量为48.5、146.8、1.0 mm,分别占同期降雨的21.4%、33.3%、1.3%;乌审旗、磴口150 cm以下渗漏量为1009.6、52.6mm,分别占同期降雨的55.7%、12.7%。不同气候区固定沙丘渗漏量基本没有差异,降雨格局不是影响水分深层渗漏的主导因素,而植被覆盖的影响占主要作用,且沙丘植被盖度>45%时深层渗漏量不超过同期降雨的2.0%。中国沙区深层土壤水分补给主要来自于强降雨或高频次小降雨事件,特别是干旱区降水少、频次低,其深层土壤水分补给更加依赖于强降水。     

Effects of soil surface components on soil hydrological behaviour in a dry Mediterranean environment (Southern Spain)

Various researchers have studied the spatial pattern of soil surface components such as vegetation, rock fragments, bare soil, litter and surface crusts, as a key factor of hydrological behaviour in Mediterranean settings with heterogeneous patches of vegetation cover and strong human impact. The studies indicate that there is a mosaic of patches that generate run-off or infiltrate overland flow, distributed in various ways along hillslopes. Few of these studies, however, have looked at areas underlain by metamorphic rocks such as phyllites or schists. This study analysed the temporal and spatial variability of the effects of soil surface components on hydrological processes in a small dry Mediterranean catchment underlain by metamorphic rocks. A systematic sampling of multiple sites throughout a hydrological year was carried out.We related the hydrological behaviour of soil surface components to 1) their position along the hillslope, 2) the distance of existing vegetation tussocks from the line of run-off, 3) rainfall intensity and 4) the main physical/chemical soil properties affecting infiltration processes. Statistical analysis was used to check the validity of the relationships. The results show that soil surface components have highly variable effects, in both space and time, on soil hydrological behaviour. These effects particularly depend on the location along the line of maximum slope and the intensity of preceding rainfall, whose interaction defines soil hydrological status. These results are similar to those for other Mediterranean settings with different lithology, in that the succession of contributing patches are hydrologically interconnected along a hillslope. The variables used and the grouping of explanatory variables through principal component analyses were found to be suitable for discussing the spatial distribution of soil surface components in the hydrologically dynamic environment of the study area.     

基于插件技术和GIS的坡面土壤侵蚀模拟系统

以C⁺⁺为开发语言,在.NET开发环境中,调用ArcGIS Engine开发包,设计基于插件技术和GIS坡面土壤侵蚀量估算系统,结合6次人工模拟降雨试验土壤侵蚀数据和三维激光扫描(LiDAR)地形数据,验证该系统估算土壤侵蚀量精度。结果表明,该系统估算坡面土壤侵蚀量具有较高精度,其值介于93.3%~99.5%间,平均估算精度95.8%。计算机模拟系统能较好模拟坡面土壤侵蚀形态,说明此系统估算坡面土壤侵蚀量可行。     

粤北石漠化地区坡地土壤侵蚀模拟试验研究

在粤北山区裸地、草坡地和耕地等3种石漠化土地的坡面上,采用0.3 mm·min-1、0.48 mm·min-1、0.72 mm·min-1、1.08 mm·min-1 4种降雨强度进行了36场人工降雨模拟试验。结果表明,坡面上3种类型石漠化土地的土壤侵蚀特征、强度各不相同。在同一地类上,土壤侵蚀量随降雨过程的进行呈现出波动下降的趋势,且随雨强的增大,土壤侵蚀量亦增大;土壤侵蚀量与雨强之间均呈现极显著的线性相关关系。在任一雨强条件下,都是裸地的土壤侵蚀量最大,耕地次之,草坡地最小。地表覆被对降雨侵蚀产沙过程有重要的抑制作用,大雨强条件下抑制作用尤为突出;而水平沟耕作方式能减少小雨强条件下的土壤侵蚀量,但随着雨强的增大,其影响也随之降低。     

云南松林的林冠对土壤侵蚀的影响

研究发现滇西北高山峡谷区云南松也具有通过林冠截流减少有效雨量和降低雨滴对地表的滴溅能量,减少降雨对土壤的侵蚀程度,产生较大的直径的叶工引起的林冠滴溅效应,云南松林冠在整个雨季截留率平均达３６．２９％,使林下有效降雨仅为降雨量的６３．７１％,松林在整个雨季的林下溅蚀累积总量为４．９４ｋｇ／ｍ＾２,裸地为６．１２ｋｇ／ｍ＾２,表明松林减少１９．２８％,的溅蚀全量,但林地在雨季中后期的各阶段溅蚀全量却高     

干旱半干旱区山地土壤水分动态变化

水分是干旱半干旱区山地植物生长的主要限制因子，在这些地区开展土壤水分动态变化研究对农业生产和生态恢复的重要性是不言而喻的。近年来土壤水分测定技术有了很大进步，中子水分仪和时城反射仪已成为常规测量仪器，新型仪器不断出现，总的趋势是仪器的精度和自动化水平不断提高。土壤水分有其时空变化规律，一方面土壤水分随季节变化而变化，另一方面土壤水分随土壤深度和水平位置的变化发生相应变化。降水是影响干旱半干旱区山地土壤水分的最重要因素，气温、太阳辐射等其它气象因子对土壤含水量也用一定影响。此外，坡向、坡度、坡位等地形因子以及土壤特性、地表植被、土地利用情况等对土壤含水量空间分布也有重要影响。总之土壤含水量的时空变化是各种环境因子综合作用的结果。目前土壤水分动态变化的研究重点是对其影响因子的研究。就我国而言，宜加强干旱河谷区土壤水分动态变化的研究，促进土壤水分动态变化研究工作全面深入地开展。     

基于CLDAS融合降水的中国降雨侵蚀力研究

气象站和卫星降雨资料估算降雨侵蚀力时存在无法反映空间异质性且精度差的问题,基于CLDAS多源融合降水,利用EI₆₀模型从不同的时空尺度对中国的降雨侵蚀力进行评估,并结合降雨量、侵蚀性降雨次数、侵蚀密度等指标,探讨降雨对土壤侵蚀的潜在作用。结果表明：（1） CLDAS降雨侵蚀力与地面实测数据在不同的时间尺度均有良好的回归关系,相关系数达到0.8以上,与CMORPH降雨侵蚀力相比,其相对误差显著降低,可以准确反映全国范围的降雨侵蚀力季节性变异。（2） 在2001—2020年,不同雨量区的降雨侵蚀力、降雨量和侵蚀性降雨次数的变化趋势基本一致,高雨量区的年际变化波动剧烈,侵蚀性降雨次数和暴雨过程协同影响降雨侵蚀力的大小。（3） 空间上,中国的降雨侵蚀力值的特点为东南沿海地区高、西北内陆地区低。时间上,侵蚀性降雨集中在5—8月,夏、秋两季对土壤造成的侵蚀影响更大。（4） 通过对年降雨量、年侵蚀密度和年暴雨量进行分区定量分析,结果表明暴雨量与侵蚀密度成正相关关系,即年降雨量一定,暴雨事件越多,降雨侵蚀密度越大。     

Differences in hillslope runoff and sediment transport rates within two semi-arid catchments in southeast Spain

This paper focuses on hillslope runoff and sediment transport within two catchments in southeast Spain. Five monitoring sites were established on hillslope concavities throughout the two catchments. The techniques used were mini-crest stage recorders, spray-painted lines, sediment traps and tipping bucket rain gauges (established during previous research). Results show that a storm event in the Rambla Nogalte on 30 June 2002 of 83.0 mm was responsible for a maximum runoff depth of 12 cm and a maximum hillslope sediment transport of 1886 cm³ m⁻¹. The same storm in the Rambla de Torrealvilla produced 53.4 mm of rainfall on the 1 July 2002, had a maximum runoff depth of 26 cm and resulted in 2311 cm³ m⁻¹ of sediment transport. There is evidence to suggest that measured sediment transport is related to runoff and a qualitative estimate of Morphological Runoff Zones (MRZ). Sediment transport and depth of runoff varied dramatically with lithology; marl sites produced most runoff and sediment transport, followed by the sites of mixed red and blue schist, then blue schist. These results are important for understanding the behaviour of slopes and show that for short lived storms with high, but not rare, rainfall intensities and total rainfall amounts, runoff can cause significant hillslope sediment transport in semi-arid areas.     

1960~2010年西北干旱区极端降水特征研究

基于中国西北干旱区1960~2010 年70个台站逐日降水资料,采用欧盟组织(STARDEX)定义的降水极值指数,分析结果表明: ① 研究区近51 a来强降水发生频次、湿期平均长度表现出增多和增长趋势,干日数和干期平均长度表现出减少和变短趋势; ② 单次强水的强度在增加,表现为：湿日数减少,而降水的总量却显著增加。③ 湿日数减少主要是0~6 mm强度的降水日数减少,12~24 mm强度的降水日数显著增加,后者对降水总量的增加贡献较大。④ 绝大部分站点强降水（>12 mm）的雨日（量）都以上升趋势为主,表现为下降趋势的站点极少。     

Soil erodibility and processes of water erosion on hillslope

The importance of the inherent resistance of soil to erosional processes, or soil erodibility, is generally recognized in hillslope and fluvial geomorphology, but the full implications of the dynamic soil properties that affect erodibility are seldom considered. In Canada, a wide spectrum of soils and erosional processes has stimulated much research related to soil erodibility. This paper aims to place this work in an international framework of research on water erosion processes, and to identify critical emerging research questions. It focuses particularly on experimental research on rill and interrill erosion using simulated rainfall and recently developed techniques that provide data at appropriate temporal and spatial scales, essential for event-based soil erosion prediction. Results show that many components of erosional response, such as partitioning between rill and interrill or surface and subsurface processes, threshold hydraulic conditions for rill incision, rill network configuration and hillslope sediment delivery, are strongly affected by spatially variable and temporally dynamic soil properties. This agrees with other recent studies, but contrasts markedly with long-held concepts of soil credibility as an essentially constant property for any soil type. Properties that determine erodibility, such as soil aggregation and shear strength, are strongly affected by climatic factors such as rainfall distribution and frost action, and show systematic seasonal variation. They can also change significantly over much shorter time scales with subtle variations in soil water conditions, organic composition, microbiological activity, age-hardening and the structural effect of applied stresses. Property changes between and during rainstorms can dramatically affect the incidence and intensity of rill and interrill erosion and, therefore, both short and long-term hillslope erosional response. Similar property changes, linked to climatic conditions, may also significantly influence the stability and resilience of plant species and vegetation systems. Full understanding of such changes is essential if current event-based soil erosion models such as WEPP and EUROSEM are to attain their full potential predictive precision. The complexity of the interacting processes involved may, however, ultimately make stochastic modelling more effective than physically based modelling in predicting hillslope response to erodibility dynamics.     

Deriving indicators of soil degradation from soil aggregation studies in southeastern Spain and southern France

Soil degradation is perceived as a major threat in the Mediterranean region due to changes in land-use and possible future climate change. Soil aggregation parameters are used here to demonstrate their potential as a key-indicator for land degradation studies. The monitoring of these indicators offers a means of establishing the vulnerability and resilience of geo-ecosystems. Soil aggregation stability and distribution were studied on soils with an open shrubby vegetation cover, from several places in southeastern Spain and southern France, by applying drop tests and determining aggregate size distributions. Aspect and vegetation cover were incorporated in the soil sampling. Several indices were derived from these analyses to indicate the degree of soil aggregation. This was done by referencing to a base level of aggregation (bare soil aggregation). It was found that soil aggregates were more stable and were often coarser under vegetation, when compared to their immediate surrounding bare areas. A similar, slightly less clear effect was noted on N-facing exposed slopes when compared to S-facing exposed slopes. Long-term changes were found by studying cultivated land, abandoned fields and land covered by semi-natural vegetation, on comparable substrate and comparable land units. It is clear that soil aggregation and aggregate stability increases with time (years). It is argued that soil aggregation indices can be used as a key-indicator for degradation processes at a fine scale with implications for runoff and sediment generating processes at the hillslope scale.     

干旱荒漠土壤动物分布格局对降水脉动的响应研究进展

在干旱荒漠区,降水呈现强烈的脉动特征（即降水频率、强度及数量的高度变异性）,降水脉动变化对荒漠土壤动物的分布格局有显著影响。目前对降水脉动如何影响和调控荒漠土壤动物分布格局形成与维持的生态机制的认识非常有限。因此,深入开展干旱荒漠区降水脉动变化对土壤动物群落分布及多样性影响研究具有重要的科学意义。本文围绕“降水脉动驱动资源脉动影响土壤动物食物网结构”这一核心问题,重点从自然降水变化、冬季降雪变化和夏季降雨变化等方面对国内外的研究动态及最新研究进展做比较系统的评述。在此基础上,探索干旱荒漠生态系统响应降水变化研究中应重点关注的几个前沿科学问题,这可为中国干旱荒漠生态系统生物多样性保护管理提供科学依据,促进荒漠生态系统生物多样性保育理论、资源脉动生态学理论和研究方法的发展。     

Differential responses of hillslope and channel elements to rainfall events in a semi-arid area

The degree of hydrological connectivity of hillslope elements in a semi-arid climate was studied at the season and event timescales. Field data were obtained in Rambla Honda, a Medalus project field site situated in SE Spain, on micaschist bedrock and with 300 mm annual rainfall. The season timescale was assessed using correlation analysis between soil moisture and topographic indices. The event timescale was studied by a quasi-continuous monitoring of rainfall, soil moisture, runoff and piezometric levels. Results show that widespread transfers of water along the hillslope are unusual because potential conditions for producing overland flow or throughflow are spatially discontinuous and extremely short-lived. During extreme events, runoff coefficients may be locally high (ca. 40% on slope lengths of 10 m), but decrease dramatically at the hillslope scale (<10% on slope lengths of 50 m). Two mechanisms of overland flow generation have been identified: infiltration excess, and local subsurface saturation from upper layers. The former occurs during the initial stages of the event while the latter, which is quantitatively more important, takes place later and requires a certain time structure of rainfall intensities that allow saturation of the topsoil and the subsequent production of runoff. Hillslopes and alluvial fans function as runoff sources and sinks respectively. Permanent aquifers are lacking in Rambla Honda. Variable proportions of hillslope areas may contribute to flash floods in the main channel, but their contribution to the formation of saturated layers within the sediment fill is very limited.     

干旱沙区生物土壤结皮覆盖土壤CO2通量对脉冲式降雨的响应

水分是干旱区生态过程中主要限制因子,降水可通过改变土壤的干湿状况直接影响土壤的生态过程,继而引起土壤碳库的变化。生物土壤结皮作为干旱区主要的地表覆盖物,其自身不但可以进行呼吸作用,还能充分利用有限的水分通过光合作用固碳,改变土壤圈与大气圈之间的碳交换通量。通过模拟0、2、5、8、15 mm降雨,利用红外气体分析仪,对腾格里沙漠东南缘人工固沙植被区主要的生物土壤结皮覆盖土壤净CO₂通量进行了原位测定,探讨生物土壤结皮覆盖土壤CO₂释放和光合固定CO₂(吸收)共同作用下的土壤净CO₂通量对模降雨的响应特征。结果表明:(1)降雨会迅速激发生物土壤结皮覆盖土壤CO₂释放,降雨激发CO₂释放速率和有效时间取决于降雨量,降雨量越高,激发程度越低,激增的生物土壤结皮覆盖土壤CO₂释放(源)效应有效时间随降雨量的增加而延长;降雨激发的土壤碳释放总量随着降雨量的增加显著增加,且藓类结皮覆盖土壤碳释放总量显著高于藻类结皮(P<0.05)。(2)降雨引起生物土壤结皮覆盖土壤CO₂吸收速率在初期呈单峰变化,后逐渐回归到降雨前的水平,随降雨量的增加,CO₂吸收的效应的时间越长,峰值越高;降雨量越高,生物土壤结皮光合碳固定量越多,当降雨量增加到15 mm时,藻类结皮光合碳固定量显著低于8 mm时的碳固定量;降雨量<5 mm时,藓类结皮光合碳固定量显著低于藻类结皮(P<0.05),≥5 mm时,藓类结皮光合碳固定量显著高于藻类结皮(P<0.05)。(3)干旱荒漠地区生物土壤结皮覆盖土壤,在无降雨的干旱期表现为较低水平的净碳排放效应,不同程度降雨的初期阶段都有短暂的增加土壤碳的汇效应,且碳汇效应的时间随降雨量的增加而延长;适度的降雨会降低长期干旱藻类结皮覆盖土壤向大气的碳排放量,而过高或过低的降雨都会不同程度地增加藻类结皮覆盖土壤向大气的碳排放,降低土壤碳的储量。不论降雨量大小,降雨都会增加藓类结皮覆盖土壤更多碳向大气排放,但随着降雨量的增加,源效应逐渐减弱。降雨量≤8 mm时,藓类结皮覆盖土壤净碳排放总量显著高于藻类结皮(P<0.05),当降雨量>8 mm时,藓类结皮覆盖土壤净碳排放量显著低于藻类结皮覆盖土壤(P<0.05)。因此,干旱区在估算生物土壤结皮覆盖土壤与大气碳交换对降雨的响应规律时,应该充分考虑降雨量大小对生物土壤结皮碳固定量和土壤碳释放组分的效应,明确降雨事件大小对不同类型生物土壤结皮覆盖土壤与大气之间碳交换的作用。     

Empirical models of rain-spells characteristics – A case study of a Mediterranean-arid climatic transect

Environmental (geomorphological, hydrological and ecological) processes are controlled by rainfall, particularly in the Mediterranean, semi-arid and arid regions. Rainfall was analyzed using the concept of rain-spells, i.e., a period of successive rain days preceded and followed by at least one day without rainfall. Daily data from 13 stations along a climatic transect extending from the Judean Mountains with a Mediterranean climate to the Dead Sea arid region in Israel were studied. Rain-spell characteristics (number, yield and duration), based on these data, are presented for different rainfall thresholds, which might be used for different environmental processes such as rock weathering, soil organic matter dynamics, landslides, overland flow and floods and soil erosion. Three estimation models have been developed in order to predict the mean annual Number of Rain-Spells (NRS), mean Rain-Spell Yield (RSY), and mean Rain-Spell Duration (RSD) for the mean annual rainfall and for any given rainfall threshold. These models can be used for current climatic conditions and for scenarios in which the rainfall total changes.