Numerical modelling of soil nails in loose fill slope under surcharge loading

A plane–strain numerical model has been developed to mimic a nailed loose fill slope under surcharge loading. The model has been used to back-analyse a field test that was conducted to examine the behaviour of soil nails in loose fill slopes under surcharge loading. Incremental elasto-plastic analyses coupled with pore water diffusion have been performed to study the internal deformation, water content redistribution in the soil, and the performance of the soil nails during and after the application of surcharge loading. The model parameters describing the mechanical and hydraulic properties of the nailed slope were obtained from field or laboratory tests. Different modelling techniques and boundary conditions for mimicking soil–nail interaction in loose fill material have been examined. Comparisons between numerical predictions and field measurements demonstrate that a new interfacial model, denoted as the embedded bond–slip interface model, is more suitable for mimicking the interfacial behaviour. Despite the simplicity of the numerical model, the predicted responses are in close agreement with the field test results, in particular the mobilisation and distribution of nail forces in response to surcharge loading. Both the numerical and the field test results suggest that soil nails are capable of increasing the overall stability of a loose fill slope for the loading conditions considered in this study. The increase in confining stress along the soil nails near the surcharge area is central to the overall stabilising mechanism. On the contrary, the nail forces mobilised near the nail heads are much smaller, indicating that the beneficial effect of having a structural grillage system at the slope face is limited for the range of surcharge pressures considered in this study.     

Numerical simulation of mitigation for liquefaction-induced soil deformations in a sandy ground improved by cement grouting

This paper presents a numerical study of mitigation for liquefaction during earthquake loading. Analyses are carried out using an effective stress based, fully coupled, hybrid, finite element-finite differences approach. The sandy soil behavior is described by means of a cyclic elastoplastic constitutive model, which was developed within the framework of a nonlinear kinematic hardening rule. In theory, the philosophies of mitigation for liquefaction can be summarized as two main concepts, i.e. prevention of excess pore water pressure generation and reduction of liquefaction-induced deformations. This paper is primarily concerned with the latter approach to liquefaction mitigation. Firstly, the numerical method and the analytical procedure are briefly outlined. Subsequently, a case-history study, which includes a liquefaction mitigation technique of cement grouting for ground improvement of a sluice gate, is conducted to illustrate the effectiveness of liquefaction countermeasures. Special emphasis is given to the computed results of excess pore water pressures, displacements, and accelerations during the seismic excitation. Generally, the distinctive patterns of seismic response are accurately reproduced by the numerical simulation. The proposed numerical method is thus considered to capture the fundamental aspects of the problems investigated, and yields results for design purposes. From the results in the case, excess pore water pressures eventually reach fully liquefied state under the input earthquake loading and this cannot be prevented. However, liquefaction-induced lateral spreading of the foundation soils can be effectively reduced by the liquefaction mitigation techniques. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Homogenization of granular material modeled by a three-dimensional discrete element method

A homogenization strategy for granular materials is presented and applied to a three-dimensional discrete element method (DEM), that uses superellipsoids as particles. Macroscopic quantities are derived from the microscopic quantities resulting from a DEM simulation by averaging over representative volume elements (RVEs). The implementation of an RVE is described in detail regarding the definition and discretization of the RVE boundary. The homogenization strategy is validated by DEM simulations of compression and shear tests of cohesionless granular assemblies. Finally, an elasto-plastic material model is fitted to the resulting stress–strain curves.     

Advanced constitutive modelling of shotcrete: Model formulation and calibration

Shotcrete is one of the main support elements for tunnels constructed according to the principles of the New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM). In this paper, a sophisticated constitutive model for the complex mechanical and time-dependent behaviour of shotcrete is presented, which is formulated within the framework of elasto-plasticity. Two independent yield surfaces govern the material behaviour in compression and tension under multi-axial loading conditions, which is further controlled by non-linear plastic strain hardening and softening rules following uniaxial stress–strain curves. The main novelty of the model is the introduction of normalised hardening and softening parameters which enable a more realistic simulation of the shotcrete loading history. In addition, cracking of the shotcrete is treated within the smeared crack concept by applying a fracture energy approach as a regularisation technique, which eliminates the dependency of the results on the size of the elements in a finite element mesh. Furthermore, the model takes into account the gradual change of the main material properties of the shotcrete due to cement hydration during the first 28 days after spraying. Other important time effects such as creep, shrinkage and hydration temperature induced deformations at early ages are considered in the current model formulation. This paper aims to describe in detail the developed structure of the constitutive model and model calibration.     

Investigating the effect of soil models on deformations caused by braced excavations through an inverse-analysis technique

In this study, a series of inverse-analysis numerical experiments was performed to investigate the effect of soil models on the deformations caused by excavation by using the finite element method. The nonlinear optimization technique that was incorporated into the finite element code was used for the inverse-analysis numerical experiments. Three soil models (the hyperbolic model, pseudo-plasticity model, and modified pseudo-plasticity model) were employed in the intended numerical experiments on a well-documented excavation case history. The results indicate that wall deflection due to excavation can be accurately back-figured by each of the three soil models, while the ground surface settlement can be reasonably optimized only by the pseudo-plasticity model and the modified pseudo-plasticity model. Importantly, the modified pseudo-plasticity model can yield more reasonable simulations when the wall deflection and the ground surface settlement are simultaneously back-figured. The results show that selection of an adequate soil model that is capable of adequately describing the stress–strain-strength characteristics of the soils is essentially crucial when predicting the excavation-induced ground response.     

Crack modelling of concrete, rock and soil with inner softening bands

To model the cracking behaviour of brittle materials, different existing methods for treating the fracture zone can be used. The inner softening band (ISB) approach belongs to those methods which introduce a displacement discontinuity in which a constitutive relationship between opening displacements and tractions is assumed. This group of methods avoids difficulties in the localization zone caused by ambiguous definitions of strain measures and fracture zone widths. Whichever method is used, it is important that the proper amount of energy is dissipated. This is achieved automatically in ISB without the introduction of any extra material parameters other than the elastic constants and those describing the softening curve. Variations in mesh sizes and arrangements have shown no great influence on the total response, and the crack pattern is a part of the solution in contrast to most other methods in which it must be presumed. The concept is simple and inner softening bands have been successfully implemented within triangular three-node elements and preliminary within six-node triangular elements. The results obtained so far from various kinds of tests have shown very good performance and further development is planned.     

Influences of overburden pressure and soil dilation on soil nail pull-out resistance

Soil nailing is the most popular technique for stabilizing newly formed and existing sub-standard slopes in Hong Kong because of its economic and technical advantages. The nail–soil interface shear resistance is an important parameter in design of soil nailed structures. A three-dimensional finite element model was established and used for simulating soil nail pull-out tests. The finite element model was verified by comparing simulated results with measured data. The agreement between the experimental and simulated results in terms of both average pull-out shear stress and stress variation was very good. Using this finite element model, a parametric study was carried out to study the influences of the overburden pressure and soil dilation angle on the soil nail pull-out resistance. The simulated peak pull-out resistance was not directly related to the overburden pressure, which was coincident with the observations in laboratory pull-out tests. The simulated pull-out resistance increased significantly with the increase in dilation angle of the shearing zone. This analysis indicated that the constrained dilatancy of the nail–soil interface and the soil surrounding the nail contributed a lot to the development of peak pull-out resistance.     

An integrated approach for validating unsaturated soil parameters in seepage analyses

Soil–water characteristic curves (SWCCs) and soil permeability functions (SPFs) for a silty sand were validated based on soil suction and soil water content measurements in calibration box and constant-head seepage tests. Transient seepage analyses using finite element method (FEM) were performed to examine the accuracy of the derived SWCCs and SPFs, with a special focus on the wetting front propagation. Results show that the proposed new integrated system consisting of experimental and analytical techniques works well, in the sense that the soil moisture responses at specific depths of soil mimic those measured in constant-head seepage tests.     

Application of a coupled homogenization-damage model to masonry tunnel vaults

This paper presents an approach developed to study the behavior of the masonry vaulted tunnels in order to evaluate the serviceability state and failure load. An appropriate homogenization technique is used to simulate the global anisotropic behavior across the vault. The model takes into account isotropic damage in each component of the masonry and the variations of the directions of anisotropy in case of a vault. A set of comparisons with experimental tests allowed the validation of the proposed approach. Failure loads and deformation states are correctly assessed. The present model was programmed in the finite element code CESAR-LCPC.     

被动桩中土拱效应问题的数值分析

被动桩对侧向位移的土层起到遮拦作用的机理主要是土拱效应。采用有限元软件Plaxis 8.1,详细地研究了被动桩中土拱效应的产生机理,分析了导致侧向位移的荷载大小、土体性质、群桩以及桩土接触面性质等影响因素对土拱效应性态和桩土应力分担比的影响,分析表明,桩间距是影响土拱效应的最主要因素。     

Numerical analysis of an experimental pipe buried in swelling soil

This paper investigates the pipe–soil interaction for pipes buried in expansive soil when subjected to swelling soil movement due to increase in moisture content. A laboratory experiment has been undertaken on a plastic pipe in a large-scale pipe box. A three dimensional numerical model is developed to analyse the pipe response, using FLAC^3D computer program. The pipe is assumed to behave as a linearly elastic material, while the soil is modelled as a nonlinear material with Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion. The water flow and soil/pipe deformations are decoupled, where water flow is calculated using simplified capillary rise theory on the basis of measurements made. A reasonably good agreement between the experimental results and model predictions is reported.     

Numerical study on finite element implementation of hypoplastic models

A comprehensive numerical study on finite element implementation of hypoplastic models is presented. Two crucial aspects, local integration of the constitutive equations (the local problem) and forming tangent operators for Newton–Raphson iteration (the global problem), are investigated. For solving the local problem, different integration algorithms, including explicit and implicit methods, are examined using tri-axial compression tests and incremental stress response envelopes, as well as typical boundary value problems. For solving global problems, three different ways of generating the tangent operator are compared. The numerical evidences indicate that, in terms of accuracy, efficiency and robustness, explicit methods with substepping and error control are the best choices for constitutive integration of hypoplastic models while the so-called continuum tangent operators have certain advantages over two other types of numerically-generated consistent tangent operators.     

Numerical investigation of the failure of a building in Shanghai,China

The overturning failure of a 13 storey residential building in Shanghai, China, has been investigated by plane strain finite element analysis (FEA). The results of the FEA indicate that ultimate failure of the building was probably initiated by the formation of tensile cracking in the reinforced concrete piles located under the side of the building adjacent to an excavation. This eventually led to complete structural failure of the piles located along the excavation side, which probably caused further settlement of the building, leading eventually to a toppling failure resulting in overturning of the entire building. Excessive tensile stress in the piles was probably caused by the combination of excavation of soil at one side of the building and the temporary dumping of the excavated soil on the opposite side of the building. It is likely that the effect of temporary dumping of the excavated soil adjacent to the building was either not considered or not properly taken into account in the foundation design nor the construction operations. A simple but important lesson to be draw from this failure is the need for engineers who design foundations in soft soil regions to consider not only the final loading conditions, but also any temporary and transient loading conditions during the construction process.     

Simulation of the progressive failure of an embankment on soft soil

A pragmatic strain-softening constitutive model, which is based on Modified Cam Clay, was applied to the simulation of the progressive failure of an embankment constructed on a deposit of sensitive (strain-softening) clay in Saga, Japan. A comparison of the predictions for this case indicates that if softening is ignored, only relatively small deflections and consolidation settlements are predicted, especially after construction. In contrast, for the case where softening is included in the analysis, progressive failure within the clay induces large shear deformations and finally failure of the embankment is predicted. This comparison suggests that softening-induced progressive failure should be considered in the design of embankments on such soils, and the residual strength of the deposit may have an important influence on the overall factor of safety of the construction. Detailed analyses of predicted excess pore water pressures, shear strains and shear stress levels in the ground indicate that considering the strain-softening process: (a) is associated with the buildup of excess pore water pressure; (b) promotes strain localization; and (c) results generally in a larger zone of soil involved in the failure.     

Reliability-based semi-analytical solution for ground improvement by PVDs incorporating inherent (spatial) variability of soil

The design of soil consolidation via prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) has been traditionally carried out deterministically and thus can be misleading due to the ignorance of the uncertainty associated with the inherent (spatial) variation of soil properties. To treat such uncertainty in the design process of soil consolidation by PVDs, stochastic approaches that combine the finite element method with the Monte Carlo technique (FEMC) have been usually used. However, such approaches are complex, computationally intensive and time consuming. In this paper, a simpler reliability-based semi-analytical (RBSA) method is proposed as an alternative tool to the complex FEMC approach for soil consolidation by PVDs, considering soil spatial variability. The RBSA method is found to give similar results to those obtained from the FEMC approach and can thus be used with confidence in practice.     

考虑桩土侧移的被动桩中土拱效应数值分析

被动桩对侧向位移的土层起到遮拦作用的机制主要是土拱效应。采用土工有限元软件Plaxis Tunnel 3D 1.2,对堆载荷载作用下邻近桩基中的土拱效应产生机制和性状进行三维数值分析,指出目前被动桩中土拱效应二维有限元分析存在的问题。考虑桩土侧移与相对位移,再利用土工有限元软件Plaxis2D 8.2详细地研究了侧向土体位移大小、桩身水平位移大小、土体性质以及桩土接触面性质等影响因素对土拱效应性态和桩土荷载分担比的影响。     

Numerical modeling of ground borehole expansion induced by application of pulse discharge technology

Pulse discharge technology (PDT) is an innovative technique that can be used to enhance bearing capacity of piles and resisting capacity of anchors. It enlarges the section area and compacts the surrounding soil by high-powered shock wave pressure induced by an underwater electrical discharge. This study aims to establish a suitable numerical model for the simulation and prediction of ground borehole expansion induced by PDT. In order to examine the relationship between electricity and the characteristics of shockwaves generated by PDT, laboratory pulse discharge tests were performed using PDT equipment used in current practice. Then, based on the underwater explosion (UNDEX) model and a coupled acoustic–structural analysis scheme, the results of laboratory PDT tests were analyzed and numerically benchmarked to determine the equivalent UNDEX model parameters for providing shock loading input in a ground borehole expansion simulation. A series of expansion simulations for undrained clayey and sandy soils were performed, and the predicted borehole expansion behaviors were compared with the test results. Moreover, a parametric study was conducted to examine the effects of soil properties on the expansion behavior. The results of the numerical work in this study appeared to be consistent with field test results published in the literature and showed that the soil characteristics related with packing, state of stresses, and degree of saturation were important when analyzing borehole expansion behavior.     

Numerical study of soil heterogeneity effects on contaminant transport in unsaturated soil (model development and validation)

The movement of chemicals through soil to groundwater is a major cause of degradation of water resources. In many cases, serious human and stock health implications are associated with this form of pollution. The study of the effects of different factors involved in transport phenomena can provide valuable information to find the best remediation approaches. Numerical models are increasingly being used for predicting or analyzing solute transport processes in soils and groundwater. This article presents the development of a stochastic finite element model for the simulation of contaminant transport through soils with the main focus being on the incorporation of the effects of soil heterogeneity in the model. The governing equations of contaminant transport are presented. The mathematical framework and the numerical implementation of the model are described. The comparison of the results obtained from the developed stochastic model with those obtained from a deterministic method and some experimental results shows that the stochastic model is capable of predicting the transport of solutes in unsaturated soil with higher accuracy than deterministic one. The importance of the consideration of the effects of soil heterogeneity on contaminant fate is highlighted through a sensitivity analysis regarding the variance of saturated hydraulic conductivity as an index of soil heterogeneity. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessment of identifiable defect size in a drilled shaft using sonic echo method: Numerical simulation

The purpose of this paper is to study the capabilities of the sonic echo method in assessing the location of defects and the minimum possible detectable defect size in a drilled shaft. Three-dimensional axisymmetric finite element models were performed to investigate the effects of the defect size, defect depth-to-shaft diameter ratio, and shaft-to-soil stiffness ratio on the response of the sonic echo test. According to the results from the numerical simulations, a useful formula for defect size assessment in a shaft based on the sonic echo method is proposed, considering these factors simultaneously. Furthermore, a formula for predicting the detectable length-to-diameter ratio of a shaft was also recommended which correlates with the shaft-to-soil stiffness ratio and it varies from 10 to 32.