Physical–chemical treatment process optimization for high polluting dairy effluents prior fermentation

Among dairy effluents, bactofugate (B) and decreaming racking water (D) were identified as the most polluting due to their organic load content expressed in the chemical oxygen demand (156–240 g·L^?1). Joining the plant wastewater, such effluents contribute to the increase of the polluting load of the wastewater treatment plant input which disturbs the treatment performance. This work proposes an upstream segregation of those dairy effluents for combined physical–chemical and biological treatment. An experimental design was proposed to investigate initial pH, applied temperature and exposure time factor effects on the thermal coagulation process. The fermentation of the resulted supernatants using Lactobacillus lactis ssp. lactis was performed. The optimized thermal coagulation pretreatment was obtained at (pH; T(°C); t(min)): 6, 60 °C and 5 min, with both (B) and (D) effluents. Resulted clarified whey sugar, protein and fat contents were assessed. The physical–chemical treatment resulted in considerable organic matter removal: 45% for (B) samples and 31% for (D) samples of proteins content and almost the total fat content. However, there is no considerable effect on the sugar content reduction, which remains responsible for the major fraction of the whey residual chemical oxygen demand (COD). Clarified whey fermentation using Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis strain induced important sugar consumption rates. Therefore, important sugar consumption rates were recorded and the COD removal efficiency was improved. The recorded global COD removal efficiency was of about 93%. The proposed combined physical–chemical and biological processes for dairy effluents pretreatment allowed not only to reduce the effluents polluting load, but also to valorize wheys by producing valuable components.     

Field-scale evaluation of the chemical–biological stabilization process for the remediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil

Developing countries face the challenge of growing their economy while reducing the negative environmental impacts of industry, thus requiring treatment technologies that are economical and effective. One recent technology developed in the tropical part of Mexico for the remediation of petroleum-contaminated soil was tested in this scale-up project at an industrial level, whereas previously it had only been tested at laboratory scale; 150 m³ of bentonitic mud, contaminated with weathered hydrocarbons (3.4°API) at ~50,000 ppm, was treated with 4 % Ca(OH)₂, 4 % organic amendment, and a fine-root tropical grass. Hydrocarbons in soil and in leachates, as well as pH, and acute toxicity (Microtox) were monitored for 28.8 months. At the end of the study, basal respiration, root density, and earthworm toxicity were also measured. The hydrocarbon concentration in soil was reduced to 45 %, and toxicity was eliminated. Hydrocarbons in leachates were reduced to ~1 mg/l, safe for human consumption. The pH adjustment depended on low soil moisture and was stabilized at 7.1. Intense revegetation resulted in good root density, within 90 % of nearby uncontaminated soil under pasture. Basal respiration was increased to levels comparable to uncontaminated tropical soils with agricultural use, pasture and gallery forest. At an industrial scale, strict moisture control was necessary for good pH stabilization. By controlling these conditions and applying this novel treatment process, it was possible to transform a heavily contaminated geological material into a non-toxic, fertile, soil-like substrate capable of maintaining a complete vegetative cover and microbial activity comparable to similar soils in a tropical environment.     

Toward the understanding of the treatment of textile industries’ effluents by clay: adsorption of anionic dye on kaolinite

Clays, particularly kaolinite, are promising adsorbents for the treatment of textile effluents, but there is a need of better understanding the mechanisms of adsorption, especially in the case of anionic dyes. Thus, the removal of RR120 anionic dye was investigated using Tunisian raw clay (TBK) composed of kaolinite and illite, and a standard kaolinite (KGa-2), and conducting batch experiments by varying different parameters (contact time, ionic strength, concentration, temperature). We investigated the clays’ surface charges by electrophoretic mobility measures and the dye-clay interactions during adsorption, by the streaming-induced potentials (SIP). The results showed that KGa-2 has higher adsorption capacity for RR120 dye than TBK clay, moreover enhanced by increasing the ionic strength and/or lowering the pH of the aqueous. The SIP results showed an increase of negative charges for both clays, reflecting the adsorption of the anionic dye on the positive charges of the amphoteric surfaces of the clays. The SIP magnitudes indicated a higher adsorption rate for KGa-2 in accordance with the kinetic study. The Sips model that described the best adsorption isotherms indicates lateral interactions of the dye molecules, stronger in the case of KGa-2 than TBK. Also, the dye molecules form a thinner layer on KGa-2 surfaces. In addition, the dye molecule’s structure was not altered, as verified by mass spectrometry. The adsorption process was feasible and spontaneous and favored at ambient temperature. Thus, kaolinite-rich clays are effective in the removal of anionic dyes in aqueous solution and potential good adsorbents in wastewater treatment.     

Characterisation of aerosol from Santiago,Chile: an integrated PIXE–SEM–EDX study

Santiago de Chile is a big city with huge air quality problems, being one of the most polluted cities in the world. This is aggravated during winter by the topography and meteorological conditions of the city. Although public policies have been developed to minimise the atmospheric aerosol pollution, there is a lack of adequate knowledge and poor characterisation of these aerosols (in its PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ fractions). In this study we sampled atmospheric particles during winter in two distinct areas of Santiago: downtown (Teatinos Street) and in a more residential area (Macul). Major (Si, Al, Fe, Ca and K) and some trace element (S, Cl, Ti, P, Cr, Cu and Zn) compositions were obtained by proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE). Morphological, type and chemical characterisation was also performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis system (SEM–EDX). Besides the carbon particles, the contribution of which can be quite important in the atmospheric aerosol, especially in downtown, unambiguously lithogenic (i.e. of geological origin) particles and elements are the second highest contributors. Enrichment factor calculation, together with particle identification and element correlation allow the origin of some elements and particles to be traced, revealing anthropogenic origins for some of them that are specific to the Santiago area.     

Water lily (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Nymphaea</Emphasis> sp.): an alternative organic amendment for treatment of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil by chemical–biological stabilization

The chemical–biological stabilization technology has been employed in several successful studies using sugarcane cachasse as the organic amendment. However, in some petroleum-producing areas, there are no sugar mills nearby (which is the source of this material), and the cost of transport to the contaminated site is prohibitive. Therefore, water lily, which is considered a weedy plant in many tropical and subtropical areas, was evaluated as an alternative. In 3-month experiment, water lily was compared (with and without addition of molasses) with cachasse for the treatment of clayey sediment contaminated with > 6% extra-heavy crude oil. All treatments resulted in a reduction in the hydrocarbon concentration of 15–23%, without significant differences (P > 0.05). During this process, the pH was reduced to the 7–7.5 range and water repellency (molarity ethanol drop) to 3.5–3.6 M. Also, field capacity increased to 36.3–38.5% humidity, establishing adequate conditions for the development of vegetation at this site. Likewise, toxicity was reduced to practically null (Vibrio fischeri bioassay), and hydrocarbons in leachates were reduced to 3.4–4.3 mg/l, conditions adequate for the protection of groundwater and human health in rural areas. This study confirms that water lily is an adequate substitute for the application of this treatment method for hydrocarbon-contaminated sites that are far from sugar production areas.     

The monitoring of slow-moving landslides and assessment of stabilisation measures using an optical–mechanical crack gauge

It is possible to monitor slow-moving landslides and assess landslide stabilisation measures over protracted periods using an optical–mechanical crack gauge called a TM-71. This technical note outlines the theoretical background to the gauge and illustrates its practical application through a number of case studies. These studies are drawn from a range of landslide types and stabilisation measures. In terms of monitoring slow-moving landslides, three studies of deep-seated deformations are presented. The Taukliman coastal landslide on the Black Sea Coast is characterised by vertical and horizontal displacements of up to 0.2?mm?year^?1 and sudden earthquake-induced dilations of up to 6?mm. The Parohy ridge spreading landslide in the Malá Fatra Mountains is characterised by gravitationally induced vertical displacements of 0.7?mm?year^?1. The slope deformation that formed Cyrilka Cave in the Beskydy Mountains is characterised by very slow sinistral strike–slip movements of 0.8?mm?year^?1. In terms of assessing landslide stabilisation measures, two studies are presented from Orava Castle in Slovakia and Tetín in the Czech Republic. The data recorded at these sites demonstrate that the constructed stabilisation measures have successfully alleviated the potential landslide hazard in both localities. These case studies clearly demonstrate that the gauge represents an important tool with which to monitor slow-moving landslides and assess landslide stabilisation measures. It is able to provide a precise three-dimensional record of deformation, withstand harsh environmental conditions, and record reliable data over protracted periods.     

Life cycle assessment of pyrolysis–gasification as an emerging municipal solid waste treatment technology

Waste-to-energy technologies are considered as one of the key waste treatment technologies due to their energy and heat recovery efficiencies from the waste. A number of research studies were accomplished to understand the potential environmental burdens from emerging waste treatment technologies such as pyrolysis–gasification (PG). The aim of this study was to examine the PG of municipal solid waste (MSW) treatment process through a life cycle assessment (LCA) method. The study also includes a comparative LCA model of PG and incineration to identify the potential environmental burdens from the existing (incineration) and emerging (PG) waste treatment technologies. This study focused on ten environmental impact categories under two different scenarios, namely: (a) LCA model of PG and (b) comparative LCA model of PG and incineration. The scenario (a) showed that PG had significant environmental burdens in the aquatic eco-toxicity and the global warming potential impact categories. The comparative scenario (b) of PG and incineration of MSW showed that PG had comparatively lower potential environmental burdens in acidification, eutrophication, and aquatic eco-toxicity. Both LCA models showed that the environmental burdens were mainly caused by the volume of the thermal gas (emissions) produced from these two technologies and the final residue to disposal. Therefore, the results indicate that the efficiency and environmental burdens of the emerging technologies are dependent on the emissions and the production of final residue to the landfill.     

Dissolution–reprecipitation process of magnetite from the Chengchao iron deposit: Insights into ore genesis and implication for in-situ chemical analysis of magnetite

Magnetite formed in different environments commonly has distinct assemblages and concentrations of trace elements that can potentially be used as a genetic indicator of this mineral and associated ore deposits. In this paper, we present textural and compositional data of magnetite from the Chengchao iron deposit, Daye district, China to provide a better understanding in the formation mechanism and genesis of the deposit and shed light on analytical protocols for in-situ chemical analysis of hydrothermal magnetite. Magnetite grains from the ore-related granitoid pluton, mineralized endoskarn, magnetite-dominated exoskarn, and vein-type iron ores hosted in marine carbonate intruded by the pluton were examined using scanning electron microscopy and analyzed for major and trace elements using electron microprobe. Back-scattered electron images reveal that primary magnetite from the mineralized skarns and vein-type ores were all partly reequilibrated with late-stage hydrothermal fluids, forming secondary magnetite domains that are featured by abundant porosity and have sharp contact with the primary magnetite. These textures are interpreted as resulting from a dissolution–reprecipitation process of magnetite, which, however, are mostly obscure under optically.Primary magnetite grains from the mineralized endoskarn and vein-type ores contain high SiO₂ (0.92–3.21 wt.%), Al₂O₃ (0.51–2.83 wt.%), and low MgO (0.15–0.67 wt.%), whereas varieties from the exoskarn ores have high MgO (2.76–3.07 wt.%) and low SiO₂ (0.03–0.23 wt.%) and Al₂O₃ (0.54–1.05 wt.%). This compositional contrast indicates that trace-element geochemical composition of magnetite is largely controlled by the compositions of magmatic fluids and host rocks of the ores that have reacted with the fluids. Compared to its precursor mineral, secondary magnetite is significantly depleted in most trace elements, with SiO₂ deceasing from 1.87 to 0.47 wt.% (on average) and Al₂O₃ from 0.89 to 0.08 wt.% in mineralized endoskarn and vein type ores, and MgO from 2.87 to 0.60 wt.% in exoskarn ores. On the contrary, average content of iron is notably increased from 69.2 wt.% to 71.9 wt.% in the secondary magnetite grains. The results suggest that the dissolution–reprecipitation process has been important in significantly removing trace elements from early-stage magnetite to form high-grade, high-quality iron ores in hydrothermal environments. The textural and compositional data confirm that the Chengchao iron deposit is of hydrothermal origin, rather than being crystallized from immiscible iron oxide melts as previously suggested. This study also highlights the importance of textural characterization using various imaging techniques before in-situ chemical analysis of magnetite, as is the case for texturally complicated UTh-bearing accessory minerals that have been widely used for UPb geochronology study.     

Generation of hydrogen ions and hydrogen gas in quartz–water crushing experiments: an example of chemical processes in active faults

To understand the fundamental chemical processes of fluid–rock interaction during the pulverization of quartz grains in fault zones, quartz grains were crushed within pure water. The crushing experiments were performed batch style using a shaking apparatus. The crushing process induced a decrease in pH and an increase in hydrogen gas with increased shaking duration. The amount of hydrogen ions generated was five times larger than that of the hydrogen gas, which was consistent with the amount of Si radicals estimated from electron spin resonance measurements by Hochstrasser and Antonini (1972). This indicates that hydrogen gas was generated by consuming most of the Si radicals. The generation of hydrogen ions was most likely related to the presence of silanols on the newly formed mineral surface, implying a change of proton activities in the fluid after pulverization of quartz.     

Effective removal of zinc from an aqueous solution using Turkish leonardite–clinoptilolite mixture as a sorbent

In this study, the feasibility of using a low-cost adsorbent mixture composed of leonardite (L) and clinoptilolite (C) was evaluated by batch adsorption method using different parameters such as mixing ratio, contact time, pH, temperature, and adsorbent amount for the removal of Zn (II) ions from an aqueous solution. The adsorbents were characterized by X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. Additionally, leonardite–clinoptilolite mixture was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray. The Zn (II) adsorption along with an unprecedented adsorption capacity of 454.55 mg g^?1 for unmodified natural sorbents was obtained by mixing leonardite and clinoptilolite (LC) without any pretreatment at a ratio of 3:1, using 0.1 g of sorbent at a pH 6, for 2 h of contact time. The experimental data showed a good fit for the Langmuir isotherm model. The thermodynamic parameters revealed that the present adsorption process was spontaneous and exothermic in nature (25–50 °C). The kinetic results of the adsorption showed that the Zn (II) adsorption onto the LC follows pseudo-second-order model. The resultant LC mixture has an excellent adsorption capacity of a Zn (II) aqueous solution, and data obtained may form the basis for utilization of LC as an unpretreated low-cost adsorbent for treatment of metalliferous industrial wastewater.     

High-precision U–Pb dating of complex zircon from the Lewisian Gneiss Complex of Scotland using an incremental CA-ID-TIMS approach

A novel approach of thermally annealing and sequentially partially dissolving single zircon grains prior to high-precision Isotope Dilution Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ID-TIMS) is presented. This technique is applied to complex zircon from the Precambrian Lewisian Gneiss Complex of Scotland. Up to six partial dissolutions were conducted at incrementally higher temperatures and analysed at each successive step. ID-TIMS analyses reveal the portions of zircon affected by the lowest temperature partial dissolution step have suffered Pb-loss. Successively higher temperature partial dissolution steps yield a series of analyses from the younger domains, followed by mixing trajectories with older components, presumably from the inner domains. Specifically, for a partially retrogressed granulite tonalite gneiss from the central block (Assynt), high-grade metamorphic zircon ages of c. 2500 Ma and c. 2700 Ma are resolved with a protolith age of c. 2860 Ma also recognised. This unequivocally demonstrates two separate episodes of high-grade metamorphism affected rocks from this region. The c. 2700 Ma age provides a minimum age constraint on the highest pressure event known from Archean crustal rocks. Using this technique of pseudo-spatial resolution coupled with high-precision analysis it is possible to recognise discrete Pb-loss and multiple stages of zircon growth or isotopic resetting within single grains to within 0.1–0.2% error (2σ) on individual ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb ages. This method has relevance to U–Pb zircon geochronology where conventional micro-beam techniques are unable to resolve between separate ages within single grains.     

Inferred phase relations in part of the system Au–Ag–Te: an integrated analytical study of gold ore from the Golden Mile, Kalgoorlie, Australia

Summary Integrated X-ray powder diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, electron probe, and transmission electron microscopy studies have identified the rare contact assemblage calaverite–sylvanite–hessite in a sample of gold ore from the Golden Mile deposit, Kalgoorlie, Australia. The presence of coexisting calaverite–hessite at Kalgoorlie is a non-equilibrium assemblage whereby the stable hessite-bearing assemblage is hessite–sylvanite, which formed from the breakdown of the -phase or -phase below 120°C, stützite+-phase, or sylvanite+stützite+-phase, as predicted by Cabri (1965).     

Qualitative analysis and mapping of heavy metals in an abandoned Au–Ag mine area using NIR spectroscopy

Reflectance spectroscopy covering the visible and near-infrared ranges (400–2,400 nm) is known as a rapid and nondestructive method in the characterization and quantitative analysis of many components of interest. In this study, the potential use of spectral absorption feature parameters (SAFPs) in the range of 400–2,400 nm was investigated in terms of the prediction of heavy metals and mapping of their distribution. Parameters such as absorption depth, area, and peak ratio were derived from variations in spectral absorption shape associated with concentrations of heavy metals. Heavy metals were quantified from SAFPs using stepwise multiple linear regression (SMLR) and enter multiple linear regression (EMLR). The EMLR model showed qualitative prediction performance for As and Cu, with R ² values of 0.60 and 0.81, respectively. A contour map of As and Cu concentrations based on EMLR-derived values showed similar spatial patterns to a map based on measured values.     

Do S-type granites commonly sample infracrustal sources? New results from an integrated O, U–Pb and Hf isotope study of zircon

In contrast to I-type granites, which commonly comprise infracrustal and supracrustal sources, S-type granites typically incorporate predominantly supracrustal sources. The initial aim of this study was to identify the sources of three Scottish Caledonian (~460 Ma) S-type granites (Kemnay, Cove and Nigg Bay) by conducting oxygen, U–Pb and Hf isotope analyses in zircon in order to characterise one potential end-member magma involved in the genesis of the voluminous late Caledonian (~430–400 Ma) I-type granites. Field, whole-rock geochemical and isotopic data are consistent with the generation of the S-type granites by melting their Dalradian Supergroup country rocks. While Hf isotope compositions of magmatic zircon, U–Pb data of inherited zircons, and high mean zircon δ¹⁸O values of 9.0 ± 2.7‰ (2SD) and 9.8 ± 2.0‰ for the Kemnay and Cove granites support this model, the Nigg Bay Granite contains zircons with much lower δ¹⁸O values (6.8 ± 2.1‰), similar to those found in Scottish I-type granites. This suggests that the Nigg Bay Granite contains low-δ¹⁸O material representing either altered supracrustal material, or more likely, an infracrustal source component with mantle-like δ¹⁸O. Mixing trends in plots of δ¹⁸O vs. εHf for S-type granite zircons indicate involvement of at least two sources in all three granites. This pilot study of Scottish Caledonian S-type granites demonstrates that, while field and whole-rock geochemical data are consistent with local melting of only supracrustal sources, the oxygen isotopic record stored in zircon reveals a much more complex petrogenetic evolution involving two or more magma sources.     

Mineralogical and chemical evolution of tantalum–(niobium–tin) mineralisation in pegmatites and granites. Part 2: Worldwide examples (excluding Africa) and an overview of global metallogenetic patterns

Columbite-group minerals (CGM) account for the majority of the production of tantalum, an important metal for high-technology applications. Along with other Ta–Nb oxides such as tapiolite, wodginite, ixiolite and pyrochlore supergroup minerals, CGM are recovered from rare-metal granites and granitic rare-element pegmatites. In this paper mineralogical and geochemical data with a focus on CGM, tapiolite, wodginite and ixiolite are presented for rare-element granites and pegmatites from worldwide occurrences except Africa that has been covered in a previous contribution (Melcher et al., 2015). Major and trace element data of the Ta–Nb oxides are presented and compared for a total of 25 granite/pegmatite provinces, and one carbonatite for comparison. Based on CGM compositions, the data allow to distinguish between various subgroups of Li–Cs–Ta (LCT)-family pegmatites, Nb–Y–F (NYF)-family pegmatites, mixed LCT–NYF pegmatites, and rare-element granites.Each period of Ta-ore formation in Earth history is characterised by peculiar mineralogical and geochemical features. Some of the largest and economically most important rare-element pegmatite bodies are located within Archean terrains and intruded ultramafic and mafic host rocks (e.g., Tanco/Canada, Wodgina and Greenbushes/Western Australia, Kolmozero/Kola). They are highly fractionated, of LCT affinity throughout and yield complex mineralogical compositions. The variety of minor and trace elements incorporated attests to a rather insignificant role of the immediate host rocks to their geochemical signature and rather points to the significance of the composition of the underlying crustal protoliths, internal fractionation and the processes of melt generation. Many of the Archean pegmatites carry significant Li mineralization as spodumene, petalite, and amblygonite, and all of them are also characterised by elevated Li in CGM. In addition, Sb and Bi are important trace elements, also reflected by the occasional presence of stibiotantalite and bismutotantalite. REE_N patterns of CGM are dominated by the MREE or HREE, and range from very low to high total REE concentrations. Negative Eu anomalies are omnipresent. Scandium contents are also highly variable, from very high (Tanco) to very low concentrations (Wodgina, Kolmozero).A second period of worldwide pegmatite formation was in the Paleoproterozoic. All CGM analysed derive from LCT-family pegmatites except samples from the Amazonas region where Ta is mined from rare-metal granites at Pitinga. Pegmatites intruded highly variable lithologies including metasediments, metabasites, gneiss, granite and quartzite within a variety of structural and paleogeographic settings; however, most of them are syn- to post-orogenic with respect to major Paleoproterozoic orogenic events. Minor and trace element signatures are similar to CGM from Archean pegmatites. Some are characterised by considerable REE enrichment (São João del Rei/Brazil; Amapá/Brazil; Finnish Lapland/Finland), whereas others have normal to low total REE concentrations (Black Hills/USA, Bastar/India). Examples with high REE commonly are enriched in Sc and Y as well, and are often transitional to NYF-family pegmatites.The Mesoproterozoic period is comparatively poor in rare-element pegmatites and rare-metal granites. Mineralogical and chemical attributes of ixiolite–wodginite, tapiolite, CGM and rutile from placer material in Colombia point to an unusual pegmatite source of NYF affinity, yielding high total REE, Sc and Th at low Li and Bi. REE patterns have typical negative Eu and Y anomalies.A third major period of pegmatite formation was the Early Neoproterozoic at around 1 Ga, documented in the Grenvillian (North America), the Sveconorwegian (northern Europe) and the Kibaran in central Africa. CGM are present in numerous, mostly small pegmatites, although larger examples also occur (e.g., Manono in the D.R. Congo; Melcher et al., 2015). Pegmatite fields often display a zonal arrangement of mineralised pegmatites with respect to assumed “fertile” parent granites. They intrude metasediments, metabasites, gneiss and granite of middle to upper crustal levels and display a variety of mineralogical and chemical characteristics. Pegmatites of the Sveconorwegian and Grenville domains are usually of the NYF type and CGM are characterised by elevated Y, REE, Th and Sc. In contrast, the pegmatites of central (Kibara Belt) and southwestern Africa (Orange River Belt) are commonly of LCT affinity carrying spodumene, beryl and cassiterite (Melcher et al., 2015). These CGM have elevated conce ntrations of Li, Mg, Sn and Hf. Total REE concentrations are low except for the Sveconorwegian, and exhibit a variety of shapes in normalised diagrams.The fourth major pegmatite-forming event coincides with amalgamation of Gondwana at the Neoproterozoic/Paleozoic boundary around 550 Ma ago. This event is omnipresent in Africa (“Panafrican”) and South America (“Brasiliano event” documented in the Eastern Brazilian pegmatite and Borborema provinces). Pegmatites often intruded high-grade metamorphic terrains composed of metasediments including schist, marble, quartzite, as well as gneiss, amphibolite, ultramafic rocks, and granite. Within the Neoproterozoic, rare-metal granites of NYF affinity are locally abundant. Pegmatites show both LCT and NYF affinities, and mixed types occur in Mozambique. The Alto Ligonha and Madagascar provinces are characterised by abundant REE and Sc both within Ta–Nb-oxides and as separate mineral phases. Notably, some pegmatite provinces are almost devoid of cassiterite, whereas others carry cassiterite in economic amounts.In the Phanerozoic (younger than 542 Ma), pegmatites formed at all times in response to orogenetic processes involving various continents and terranes during the long-time amalgamation of Pangea and the Alpine orogenies. Whereas some activity is related to the Pampean, Acadian and Caledonian orogenies, the Variscan/Hercynian and Alleghanian orogenies are of utmost importance as manifested in pegmatite formation associated with Sn–W mineralised granites in central and western Europe as well as in the Appalachians. Most of the Variscan and Alleghanian pegmatites are of LCT affinity, although NYF and some mixed types have been described as well. Variscan pegmatite formation culminated at ca. 330 to 300 Ma, whereas Alleghanian pegmatites range in age from about 390 Ma to about 240 Ma. Most are syn- to post-orogenic and were emplaced at different crustal levels and into a variety of host rocks. Degree of fractionation as well as minor and trace element geochemistry of Ta–Nb oxides are rather variable and cover the complete field of CGM compositions. REE patterns are characterised by prominent negative Eu anomalies.Some Mesozoic and Cenozoic pegmatites and rare-metal granites from Southeast Asia and the Russian Far East are included in the compilation. Rare-metal granites of the Jos Plateau (Nigeria) were previously investigated (Melcher et al., 2015). The proportion of NYF pegmatites and rare-metal granites in the Mesozoic is striking, i.e. illustrated by Jos, Orlovka, Ulug Tanzek as well as the southeast Asian deposits related to tin granites. CGM from these areas are invariably rich in REE, Sc, Y and Th. In all rare-metal granites, Ta–Nb oxides are characterised by high total REE concentrations and both, negative Eu and Y anomalies in chondrite-normalised REE diagrams.Although constituting a vastly different magmatic system compared to rare metal pegmatites and granites, we included the Upper Fir carbonatite from the Canadian Cordillera, for comparison, because it is characterised by unusal high Ta contents. As expected, the CGM differ from the pegmatitic CGM by having high Mg and Th, and low U concentrations in columbite-(Fe) and lack an Eu anomaly. However, they also show similarities to primitive CGM from rare metal pegmatites of the NYF family in terms of the REE pattern and the increase in #Ta and #Mn towards the margins of the CGM. Our findings support recent results presented in Chudy (2014) indicating that the Ta enrichment in some carbonatites might be attributed to magmatic processes and conditions that are similar to the pegmatitic systems.     

The definition of potential infiltration areas in Guaratinguetá watershed, Paraíba do Sul Basin, Southeastern Brazil: an integrated approach using physical and land-use elements

This work describes the methodological approach used for mapping the potential infiltration areas of the Guaratinguetá watershed (160?km²), situated in Southeastern Brazil. The method is considered a qualitative approach, which takes into account thematic maps (geology, pedology, geomorphology, and land use/land cover) and the precipitation spatial distribution. A group of experts in Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering has applied an infiltration potential scale factor that ranges from 5 (highest influence) to 1 (lowest influence). The final infiltration map was produced using several ArcGIS^? tools. The results showed that the most suitable (very high) infiltration areas represent only around 7% of the watershed area, which are associated with smooth and gentle hills, fluvial Tertiary sediments and yellow oxisols. However, growing impacts caused by land farming and urban developments require urgent planning for this region. Areas with high to moderate capacity of infiltration represent around 56% of the watershed and are found in the domain of igneous-metamorphic rocks associated with steep hill-slopes and relatively well-preserved forest fragments. This region requires a land-use strategy, such as reforestation programs, in order to increase the infiltration capacity of the watershed.     

Interaction of chemical and physical processes during deformation at fluid-present conditions: a case study from an anorthosite–leucogabbro deformed at amphibolite facies conditions

We present microstructural and chemical analyses of chemically zoned and recrystallized plagioclase grains in variably strained samples of a naturally deformed anorthosite–leucogabbro, southern West Greenland. The recorded microstructures formed in the presence of fluids at mid-crustal conditions (620–640 °C, 7.4–8.6 kbar). Recrystallized plagioclase grains (average grain size 342 μm) with a random crystallographic orientation are volumetrically dominant in high-strain areas. They are characterized by asymmetric chemical zoning (An₈₀ cores and An₆₄ rims) that are directly associated with areas exhibiting high amphibole content and phase mixing. Analyses of zoning indicate anisotropic behaviour of bytownite plagioclase with a preferred replacement in the $ \left\langle {0 10} \right\rangle $ direction and along the (001) plane. In areas of high finite strain, recrystallization of plagioclase dominantly occurred by bulging recrystallization and is intimately linked to the chemical zoning. The lack of CPO as well as the developed asymmetric zoning can be explained by the activity of grain boundary sliding accommodated by dissolution and precipitation creep (DPC). In low-strain domains, grain size is on average larger and the rim distribution is not related to the inferred stress axes indicating chemically induced grain replacement instead of stress-related DPC. We suggest that during deformation, in high-strain areas, pre-existing phase mixture and stress induced DPC-caused grain rotations that allowed a deformation-enhanced heterogeneous fluid influx. This resulted in local plagioclase replacement through interface-coupled dissolution and precipitation and chemically induced grain boundary migration, accompanied by bulging recrystallization, along with neocrystallization of other phases. This study illustrates a strong interaction and feedback between physical and chemical processes where the amount of stress and fluids dictates the dominant active process. The interaction is a cause of deformation and external fluid infiltration with a result of strain localization and chemical re-equilibration at amphibolite facies conditions.     

A distributed water–heat coupled model for mountainous watershed of an inland river basin in Northwest China (II) using meteorological and hydrological data

A distributed water–heat coupled model (DWHC) is calibrated by using daily precipitation data from 26 hydrological and meteorological stations: daily averaged air temperature data from the 11 stations and daily pan evaporation data (E601) from the 15 stations in 2000. Six tests by using different spatial interpolation methods to calculate the above daily meteorological data in each 1 km × 1 km grid, are designed to simulate the mean daily runoff generated from the research Heihe mountainous watershed in 2000. Due to spatial sparseness and asymmetry of the hydrological and meteorological stations, the results of the six tests have little differences. The interpolation method in 3-D mode considering altitude is not better than those taking no account of altitude, nor are the model results when the daily meteorological data at the two stations far from the research watershed are complemented. At last, a nearest neighbor interpolation method in 2-D mode is used to calibrate the DWHC model, in which the revised Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency NSE, balance error B, determinate coefficient R ², root mean square error RMSE and average absolute error MAE is about 0.61, 0.08%, 0.73, 25.0 and 15.8 m³s⁻¹, respectively. However, by using the daily data in 1999 to validate the model, the NSE, B, R ², RMSE and MAE are, respectively, 0.63, −2.98%, 0.77, 34.9 and 20.3 m³s⁻¹. The reason that the model result is not favorable is mainly because of the lack of detailed soil information, meteorological data and vegetation data; even worse, the basic equations for runoff generation processes are mainly derived from the research results in other regions and meanwhile, its flow concentration method should be improved too. The water balance of the research watershed in 2000 is also discussed in this paper. Though the runoff simulation results are not favorable, the estimated evapotranspiration and runoff components are in accordance with the usual knowledge qualitatively, parts of which meet with the field measurements. According to the model results, the runoff is mainly generated from the land surfaces and shallow soil layers in this cold mountainous watershed. The alpine meadow has evident water conservation function based on the model results, field investigation and field observation results. The DWHC model also reproduces the formation processes of the thick-layered ground ice to some extent, though it is suppositional due to lack of detailed soil, vegetation and meteorological information.