Underground storage of carbon dioxide in depleted natural gas reservoirs and in useless aquifers

Depleted reservoirs of natural gas and petroleum can provide excellent traps for carbon dioxide. Deep aquifers, which are not used due to high salinity, can host larger amount of the carbon dioxide under their high formation pressure than natural gas and oir reservoirs. Small fraction of aquifers in sedimentary basins in the world are enough to host about 87 gigaton-C of carbon dioxide.

A preliminary technical and economical survey on the carbon dioxide injection system suggests that the energy requirement for carbon dioxide injection into subterranean aquifers is about 269 kWh/ton-C and that the investment and operation costs for system are 79 $/ton-C. By our preliminary cost estimation in Japan, the CO₂-emission-free electricity generation may become possible with a cost increase of 35% for natural-gas-fired power station, and of 60% for coal-fired-power station.     

The use of the Levy-stable distribution for geophysical data analysis

The suitability of the Levy-stable distribution for geophysical data from a sedimentary environment has been investigated. Four types of geophysical well logging measurements from the Choshuichi alluvial fan in central Taiwan were analyzed—long-normal electrical resistivity, short-normal electrical resistivity, natural gamma-ray logging, and spontaneous potential. The results demonstrate that the Levy-stable distribution describes the geophysical data better than a Gaussian distribution. Because the Levy-stable distribution is flexible in fitting data from strongly heterogeneous fields and the traditional Gaussian distribution is only its special case, the Levy-stable distribution should be considered when analyzing geophysical data.     

The use of the Pareto distribution for fracture transmissivity assessment

For many applications data on the transmissivity distribution of individual fractures are necessary, i.e., discrete fracture network (DFN) modelling of groundwater flow and transport of solutes in fractured rock and design and performance of rock grouting. Using borehole data from the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory, Sweden, it is shown that evaluated fracture transmissivities from three boreholes at Äspö can be well described by a Pareto or power-law distribution. Evaluated distribution parameters for the three boreholes are similar, which indicates that the Pareto distribution is a robust tool to assess three fracture transmissivity distributions. Using the evaluated distribution parameters random simulations of the original interval test data show that the approximate lognormal distributions of these are reproduced. This strengthens the credibility of the approach. It is shown how the distribution parameters can be assessed from incomplete data using the properties of the distribution. Finally, Pareto distribution transmissivities also imply Pareto distribution apertures of the fractures.

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Resumen Los datos sobre la distribución de la transmisividad en fracturas individuales, son necesarios para muchas aplicaciones, Ej. Modelación de redes de fracturamiento discreto (RFD) para flujo de agua subterránea y transporte de solutos en roca fracturada y para el diseño y ejecución de operaciones de cementación en roca. Mediante el uso del Laboratorio de Rocas Duras de Äspö en Suecia, se ha demostrado que las transmisividades por fractura evaluadas en tres perforaciones en Äspö pueden ser descritas bien por una distribución Pareto o Potencial. Los parámetros de distribución evaluados para las tres perforaciones son similares, lo cual indica que la distribución Pareto es una herramienta adecuada para evaluar tres distribuciones de transmisividad por fractura. Mediante el uso de simulaciones al azar, de los parámetros de distribución evaluados, a partir de los datos del intervalo de la prueba original, se muestra que las distribuciones lognormal así aproximadas de aquellos, pueden ser reproducidas. Esto refuerza la credibilidad del método. Se demuestra como los parámetros de distribución pueden ser evaluados a partir de datos incompletos, usando las propiedades de la distribución. Finalmente, las transmisividades con distribución Pareto, también implican aberturas de las fracturas con distribución Pareto.

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Résumé Pour beaucoup dapplications sont nécessaires des données sur la distribution des transmissivités des fractures individuelles; des exemples sont la modélisation de lécoulement et du transport dans les roches fracturés ainsi que lanalyse de performance de la cimentation des roches. Les données des forages analysées dans le Laboratoire des roches dures dÄsprö-Suède ont montré que la distribution des transmissivités des fractures estimée pour trois forages dÄsprö est en accord avec les lois de Pareto ou de puissance. paramètres pour trois forages ont des valeurs semblables ce quindique que la loi de Pareto peut bien évaluer la distribution des transmissivités des fractures. Les simulations aléatoires réalisés sur lintervalle original des données qui ont utilisé les paramètres estimés des distributions ont bien reproduit la distribution log-normale approximée. Ce résultat a consolidé la confiance dans lapproche faite. On a montré que les paramètres de la distribution peuvent être estimés à partir de données incomplètes si on utilise les propriétés de la distribution. Finalement, la distribution de Pareto pour les transmissivités implique la même loi pour la distribution de lépaisseur des fractures.

     

显微镜及其用法

本书系英文版,为Munoz氏1942年西班文版后之另一著作,与A.Charipper合著者,唯内容大同小异,仅略加增删,故可视为Munoz氏原书之增订本。全书共分十章,第一章显微镜之演进举凡透镜之发现,     

The use of chi-square maps in the analysis of census data

This paper addresses itself to one of the problems inherent in any spatial analysis of census data, namely the variable size of the enumeration units. This variation renders some proportions unstable, due to the small numbers involved. Attempts to overcome this, using visual methods, can be unsatisfactory, whilst doing nothing to aid statistical analysis. Chi-square maps are suggested as a satisfactory alternative in both contexts, and data for Reading, Berkshire are displayed to illustrate this. These maps suggest that some inferences, based upon indicators derived from proportions, may be unsound.     

The use of local stone in the buildings of the Isle of Wight

The charm of the Isle of Wight, so much appreciated by visitors and the local population alike, is very much a combination of its delightful scenery and unique assemblage of vernacular buildings. These buildings range from isolated farmhouses to elaborate manor houses, castles and churches all constructed using the indigenous stone resources of the island. Today, these stone buildings, many of which date back to medieval times, are increasingly in need of conservation repair to maintain them for future generations. Essential to such conservation work is the safeguarding of the island's indigenous building stone sources as many of the stones used are unique to the island and no longer quarried. Protecting these stone sources could also provide stone for new building projects which would help to further enhance the character of the island's towns and villages.     

The use of the fractal dimension to quantify the morphology of irregular-shaped particles

For several decades, sedimentologists have had difficulty in obtaining an efficient index of particle form that can be used to specify adequately irregular morphology of sedimentary particles. Mandelbrot has suggested the use of the fractal dimension as a single value estimate of form, in order to characterize morphologically closed loops of an irregular nature. The concept of fractal dimension derives from Richardson's unpublished suggestion that a stable linear relationship appears when the logarithm of the perimeter estimate of an irregular outline is plotted against the logarithm of the unit of measurement (step length). Decreases in step length result in an increase in perimeter by a constant weight (b) for particles whose morphological variations are the same at all measurement scales (self-similarity). The fractal dimension (D) equals 1.0-(b), where b is the slope coefficient of the best-fitting linear regression of the plot. The value of D lies between 1.0 and 2.0, with increasing values of D correlating with increasing irregularity of the outline. In practice, particle outline morphology is not always self-similar, such that two or possibly more fractal elements can occur for many outlines. Two fractal elements reflect the morphological difference between micro-scale edge textural effects (D₁) and macro-scale particle structural effects (D₂) generated by the presence of crenellate-edge morphology (re-entrants). Fractal calibration on a range of regular/irregular particle outline morphologies, plus examination of carbonate beach, pyroclastic and weathered quartz particles indicates that this type of analysis is best suited for morphological characterization of irregular and crenellate particles. In this respect, fractal analysis appears as the complementary analytical technique to harmonic form analysis in order to achieve an adequate specification of all types of particles on a continuum of irregular to regular morphology.     

The adobe reaction and the use of loess mud in construction

Adobe brick and wall constructions depend for their structural usefulness on the adobe reaction. This is similar to the pozzolanic reaction produced by the addition of siliceous material to Portland cement concrete. The adobe of southwestern USA is similar to loess. Fringe loess in arid regions (North Africa, southern Spain) gave rise to the term adobe and the constructional applications. The adobe reaction may be similar to the reactions involved in lime stabilisation of engineering soils.     

黄花耐火粘土矿地质特征及利用

黄花粘土矿产于新生界第三系古新统虎林组（E1h）地层中.矿床成因类型属牛轭湖-河湖相沉积型.矿石可用于高温耐火材料、陶瓷原料及制作白土粉等.     

The use of diary survey techniques: the rural studies case

The use of diary techniques in social surveys has been discouraged because of the difficulties which have often been associated with their implementation and the analysis of the results. This paper argues that given the use of proper safeguards, diary techniques may be employed to provide high quality data for behavioural analysis, particularly in rural studies. This view is supported by an examination of two case studies where a diary technique was successfully used.     

The use of the natural gamma log in engineering geological investigations

The natural gamma log is widely used in both cased and uncased boreholes to identify changes in lithology down the length of a borehole. This is particularly important in the ground investigation process where 100% core recovery is often not achieved in the borehole programme. In this paper the use of the gamma log to provide additional information from the ground investigation boreholes is examined and illustrated by a number of case histories. It is shown that the gamma log can be used to study both the lithological variations within an individual borehole and changes in geological structure across a construction site. It is also demonstrated that a geological formation or sequence can be classified in terms of its natural gamma signature, which enables the geologist to observe its presence over large distances on a regional basis. The importance of the calibration of the gamma sonde and the use of the correct logging speed is emphasised in the paper. The successful calibration of the log against a quarry wall using a known observed geological structure as a reference is also described together with the use of the resulting information to obtain a geological log for boreholes drilled behind the quarry face. Its use in extrapolating between boreholes to detect and trace the presence of a particular geological formation to estimate its vertical and lateral extent for possible extraction is also discussed.     

The first geological use of side-scan sonar

Side-scan sonar is now a sophisticated tool providing high-quality data on the ocean floor. In its early days, however, it gave discouraging results, and for many years it seemed as if it would never provide useful geological information at all.     

The use of aquatic bryophytes in prospecting

The properties of aquatic bryophytes in trapping sediments, adsorption of metals by ionic exchange, concentrating rare earth and other metals, and their long life, enabling them to integrate seasonal fluctuations in metal content of streams, make them useful adjuncts to stream sediments or, under certain conditions, the preferred sampling medium for prospecting. Certain factors may limit their usefulness, including their sporadic occurrence caused by their requirement for specific habitats, and the possibility of species differences in element accumulation together with difficulties in species identification. Recent studies indicate that these factors can be ignored. Effects of natural contamination of the samples may require thorough cleaning and correction such as standardizing of ash yields.     

The use of ground rocks in laterite systems: An improvement to the use of conventional soluble fertilizers?

The geochemistry of lateritic terrains is discussed in terms of nutrient demand in agriculture. The data presented show a dramatic depletion of virtually all nutrients when compared to crustal levels and other soil systems. Increasing world demand for food production, particularly in tropical countries where alcohol production is also needed, has forced the agriculture frontier deep into lateritic areas. As cultivation is intensified the laterite becomes more barren and a neutral recipient for the massive doses of nutrients that are to be constantly added if production is to continue. Conventional soluble fertilizers such as NPK do not answer basic requirements. Designed for the high-nutrient and high-exchange-capacity soils of the northern hemisphere they are not held by the Fe₂O₃---Al₂O₃---SiO₂---H₂O laterite systems and, under condition of excess rain, they can be wasted and consequently polluting. Furthermore, they do not supply a variety of both macro- and micronutrient elements that are normally present in soils in equilibrium with rock debris, but that are lacking in laterites. The replenishment of the laterite to the nutrient levels of natural fertile soils can be basically attained by adding into the system ground rocks of varied composition. The thermodynamical and geochemical background of this proposition is discussed and the state of the art is presented.     

The use of correspondence analysis in geochemistry

When factor analysis is used in geochemistry, it may be useful for factors to be transformed by rotations in order to be identified either to the end members of a mixing model (Miesch, 1976a),or to known chemical equilibriums. It requires that the formula for recomputing data from the factors may be written in a factored manner, which is generally not the case in correspondence analysis. The present paper shows that this becomes possible with data having constant row sums. As an example, the method is tested on the lavas of Paricutin Volcano, already examined by using an extended Q-mode factor analysis (Miesch, 1979).Recomputation of the data after projection gives simular results for both methods. Otherwise, the fact that correspondence analysis provides centered factors makes it well suited to the study of chemical reactions leading to constant mass transformations.     

The use of hydroxyacids as geochemical indicators

The distributions of hydroxyacids in a variety of Recent and ancient sediments have been determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A lacustrine sediment (Rostherne Mere, U.K.) and two marine situations (Cariaco Trench, Black Sea) were analyzed as examples of Recent depositional environments. β-hydroxyacids occurred in all of the Recent sediments, consistent with their presumed microbial origin, whereas di- and trihydroxyacids were present in the sediments with a significant higher plant input (Black Sea and Rostherne Mere sediments). The two ancient (Eocene) sediments examined, viz. the Greene River (U.S.) and Messel (Germany) oil-shales, contained only trace amounts of hydroxyacids. These results provide evidence that hydroxyacids are in general not well preserved over geological time.