The Late Paleozoic porphyry–epithermal spectrum of the Birgilda–Tomino ore cluster in the South Urals,Russia

The Birgilda–Tomino ore cluster in the East Uralian zone, South Urals, Russia, hosts a variety of Late Paleozoic porphyry copper deposits (Birgilda, Tomino, Kalinovskoe, etc.), high- and low sulfidation epithermal deposits (Bereznyakovskoe, Michurino), and skarn-related base metal mineralization (Biksizak) in carbonate rocks. The deposits are related to quartz diorite and andesite porphyry intrusions of the K–Na calc-alkaline series, associated to a subduction-related volcanic arc. We report microprobe analyses of ore minerals (tetrahedrite–tennantite, sphalerite, Bi tellurides and sulfosalts, Au and Ag tellurides), as well as fluid inclusion data and mineral geothermometry. On the basis of these data we propose that the Birgilda–Tomino ore cluster represents a porphyry–epithermal continuum, with a vertical extent of about 2–3 km, controlled by temperature decreases and fS₂ and fTe₂ increase from deeper to shallow levels.     

Rajkonkoski gold-telluride ore occurrence: A new high prospective type of complex noble metal mineralization in the Karelian Proterozoic

The Rajkonkoski ore occurrence is located within the region of the Karelian craton (AR₂) and the Svecofennian folded belt (PR₁) conjugation. It is presented by quartz-carbonate veins in metadoleriles and a zone of brecciation, crumple, and silification of carbonaceous shales within the volcanites of the Soanlakhtinsky suite (PR₁). Ore mineralization in black shales and quartz veins has features of genetic similarity presenting different levels of the ore system controlled by different range strike-slip fault dislocations. At the Rajkonkoski ore occurrence, 41 ore minerals have been identified: 12 tellurides (native tellurium, hedleyite, pilsenite, tsumoite, tellurobismuthite, hessite, stuetzite, radclidzhite, joseite-B, altaite, volynskite, petzite); 4 bismuth-tellurides of the following compositions Bi₃Te, Bi₃Te₂, BiTe₄, PbBiTe; 3 selenides (clausthalite, tellurolaitakarite, native selenium); and 12 native metals (gold, silver, electrum, copper, iron, lead, tin, bismuth, osmiridium). The contents of the main ore minerals in places exceed 10%, and the concentrations of elements reach as follows: Cu and Pb, 5%; Zn, Bi, 1%; Se, 219 ppm; Te, 171 ppm; Sb, 3 ppm; As, 5 ppm; Ag, >0.1%; Au, 35.28 ppm. Ore mineralization is formed during the temperature interval from 550°C up to <170oC in the conditions of high activity of Se and Te, and beginning from medium temperatures (>300°C) complete miscibilities galenite-clausthalite and galenite-altaite are observed. In aggregate with a wide temperature interval (>400°C) of ore process evolution and mineral specia variety of telluride and native metal mineralizations, the original “torsion” of different temperature mineralizations makes it possible to determine the affiliation of the Rajkonkoski ore occurrence to the xenothermal type deposits or epithermal “alkaline,” gold-telluride A-type characterized by a close connection with magmatism of increased alkalinity and the original geochemical (Te-V-F) and mineral (tellurides of gold, silver and other metals, fluorite, roscoelite, vanadium-containing sulfides) associations. Taking into consideration that many of the xenothermal and epithermal A-type gold and silver deposits are large commercial objects, the prospects of the Rajkonkoski ore occurrence and the region of the Karelian craton and Svecofennian folded belt conjugation seem to be significant for noble metal mineralization.     

Origin and age of rift related fluorite and manganese deposits from the San Rafael Massif,Argentina

The San Rafael Massif is characterized by widespread fluorite and manganese epithermal ore deposits whose origin has been under debate to the present. Isotopic (Sm/Nd and K/Ar) and geochemical (trace elements and REE) data of fluorite and manganese ore allowed to establish the age and genesis of the deposits and to propose a regional genetic model. The fluorite deposits were formed during the Upper Triassic–Lower Jurassic as a result of the Triassic rifting that launched a hydrothermal activity at regional scale. The hydrothermal fluids had low T and high fO₂ with fluorine probably derived from a mantle source and REE scavenged from the volcanics of the Gondwanan Choiyoi Magmatic Cycle upper section. The manganese deposits were formed by oxidizing hydrothermal fluids that collected Mn from deep sources and also leached REE from the upper section of the Choiyoi Magmatic Cycle during two mineralization episodes. One episode was linked to the rift tectonic setting that remained active up to the Upper Cretaceous and the other was related to an Early Miocene back-arc extensional geodynamic setting. Both manganese and fluorite deposits were formed in extensional tectonic settings within an epithermal environment near the surface, and can be ascribed to the general model of detachment-related deposits.     

Gold–palladium mineralization at Bleïda Far West, Bou Azzer–El Graara Inlier, Anti-Atlas, Morocco

The structurally controlled Au–Pd mineralization at Bleïda Far West occurs in a volcano-sedimentary rock sequence in altered amphibolites and chlorite schists of the Neoproterozoic Bou Azzer–El Graara inlier. The Au–Pd mineralization is virtually sulfide-free; instead, gold is associated with hematite, barite, quartz, and calcite. The gold grains are silver- and palladium-bearing (up to 19 wt% Ag and 6.3 wt% Pd) and are intergrown with a distinct suite of mainly Pd-dominated platinum group minerals, namely mertieite-I/isomertieite, merenskyite, keithconnite, kotulskite, palladseite, and sperrylite, defining a Au–Pd–As–Sb–Se–Te chemical signature. Stable isotope and fluid inclusion studies indicate a wide range of fluid compositions with a prominent saline component. In conjunction with the mineral association, oxidizing fluids are indicated, and Au and PGE transport and deposition likely took place by chloride complexes in the epithermal range, at elevated f O₂ and/or low pH. It is still speculative whether the mineralization is late Pan-African (～600–550 Ma) in age, or connected with the Variscan orogeny (～330–300 Ma), or related to some other hydrothermal event. Common to all Au–Pd mineralizations worldwide (Brazil, Australia, UK), including Bleïda Far West, is their formation in the epithermal (<300°C) range; deposition mainly in brittle structures; sulfide-poor mineral assemblages comprising hematite, sulfate minerals, and selenides; and metal transport by, and deposition from, oxidized, chloride-rich fluids. These deposits are further characterized by noble metal abundances in the order Au>Pd>Pt and the chemical signature Au–Pd–Se–Te (±As, Sb, Bi). As such, the Au–Pd association represents a discrete style of gold mineralization distinct from other classes of gold deposits.     

(Au,Ag)Te2 Minerals from Epithermal Gold Deposits in Japan

Chemical composition and mode of occurrences of (Au, Ag)Te₂ minerals such as calaverite (AuTe₂), sylvanite (AuAgTe₄) and krennerite ((Au, Ag)Te₂) in epithermal gold telluride ores from Suzaki, Kawazu and Teine are examined. In the ores from Suzaki, (Au, Ag)Te₂ minerals occur in microbands of tellurides and fine quartz. The minerals in telluride bands change from krennerite, via calaverite‐native tellurium, to sylvanite, in the order of crystallization. A sample from Kawazu contains sylvanite and native tellurium with stutzite, hessite and tetradymite in the coarser gray quartz part. The Teine sample also contains sylvanite and native tellurium with barite and quartz. The peak patterns of XRD of calaverite, krennerite and sylvanite from Suzaki are almost identical to that of JCPDS 43–1472, JCPDS 8–20 and JCPDS 9–477, respectively. The Te, Au, Cu, and Ag contents of calaverite from Suzaki range from 56.4 to 57.9 wt.%, from 41.6 to 42.6 wt.%, from 0.28 to 0.45 wt.% and from 0.14 to 0.31 wt.%, respectively, corresponding to the formula Au_0.97Ag_0.01Cu_0.02Te₂. The Te, Au, Ag, and Cu contents of krennerite from Suzaki range from 59.6 to 61.4 wt.%, from 31.3 to 33.6 wt.%, from 4.91 to 6.13 wt.% and from 0.66 to 0.80 wt.%, respectively, corresponding to the formula Au_0.71Ag_0.22Cu_0.05Te₂ with Au and Ag ranging from 0.68 to 0.74 and from 0.20 to 0.25, respectively. The Te, Au, Ag, and Cu contents of sylvanite from Suzaki range from 61.5 to 63.4 wt.%, from 24.1 to 27.4 wt.%, from 10.0 to 12.5 wt.% and from 0.00 to 0.12 wt.%, respectively. The Te, Au, Ag, and Cu contents of sylvanite from Kawazu range from 62.7 to 63.3 wt.%, from 23.5 to 24.1 wt.%, from 12.0 to 12.5 wt.% and from 0.09 to 0.16 wt.%, respectively. The Te, Au, Ag, Cu and Fe contents of sylvanite from Teine range from 61.8 to 63.5 wt.%, from 23.6 to 24.7 wt.%, from 11.9 to 13.3 wt.%, from 0.01 to 1.65 wt.% and from 0.00 to 0.02 wt.%, respectively. The average formulae of sylvanite from Suzaki, Kawazu, and Teine are expressed as Au_1.06Ag_0.94Cu_0.02Te₄, Au_1.00Ag_0.95Cu_0.02Te₄ and Au_1.01Ag_0.95Cu_0.06Te₄, respectively. Judging from the mineral assemblages of these ores and other localities, Au–Te mineralization in the Japanese Islands can be divided into four types: native gold–calaverite at Date and Agawa, krennerite(?native tellurium) at Osore‐zan and Mutsu, sylvanite–native tellurium–hessite at Teine, Kawazu, Kobetsuzawa, and Kato, and polyminerallic assemblages at Suzaki and Kushikino. The pH–Eh diagram of aqueous tellurium species and tellurium minerals at 250°C indicates that (Au, Ag)Te₂ minerals in epithermal gold telluride mineralization would have been formed under middle to low Eh and acidic (to intermediate) pH conditions. It is possible that dilute tellurium‐containing fluid would scavenge dilute gold.     

Geology, Mineralogy, and Formation Environment of the Disseminated Gold-Silver Telluride Bulawan Deposit, Negros Occidental, Philippines

Abstract: The Bulawan deposit is located in the porphyry copper belt of southwest Negros island, Philippines. Propylitic, K–feldspar, sericitic, and carbonate alteration types can be distinguished in the deposit. Propylite alteration occurs mainly in Cretaceous-Eocene andesitic lavas and agglomerates while K–feldspar, sericite and carbonate alteration types occur mostly in the Middle Miocene dacite porphyry breccia pipes and stocks which were intruded into the andesites. K-feldspar zones occur in the inner parts of the sericitized zone. Sericite alteration overprinted the propylitized and K-feldspar alteration zones, at lower temperature than epidote and chlorite in the propylitized zone. Carbonate alteration is associated with the mineralization in the center of the breccia pipes and along faults. Mineralization consists of gold-silver telluride ores that are hosted by the carbonate– and sericite-altered dacite porphyry breccia pipes. The Bulawan ores occur mainly as disseminations, but unlike many epithermal gold deposits, lack classical epithermal colloform and crustiform quartz veins. The ore minerals are sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite and tetrahedite-tennantite with minor amounts of electrum, calaverite, petzite, sylvanite, hessite, tellurobismuthite, coloradoite, altaite, and rucklidgeite. Electrum and telluride minerals are associated mostly with calcite and dolomite-ankerite minerals. Fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite in clasts of propylitized andesite in the breccia pipes homogenize from about 300° to 400°C while fluid inclusions in quartz, calcite and sphalerite within the dacite porphyry breccia pipes homogenize between 300° to 310°C. The ores were formed around 300°C from hydrothermal solutions with salinity of about 6. 6 wt % NaCl equivalent. The presence of sylvanite and calaverite as intergrowths with each other, and the Ag content of calaverite are consistent with the above temperature estimate. Based on paragenesis, the Bulawan deposit formed in a pyrite-stable environment, with pH between 3. 4 and 5. 5, f_O2 between 10^-32 to 10^-30 atm, f_S2 between 10^-9.8 to 10^-7.8 atm, f_Te2 between 10^-8.9 to 10^-6.5 atm, and total sulfur content about 10^-2.8 molal. The dominant reduced sulfur species in the ore solutions may have been H₂S_(aq), and the likely aqueous tellurium species were H₂Te_(aq) and H₂TeO_3(aq). The ore minerals in the Bulawan deposit were probably formed by mixing of slightly saline and low salinity fluids.     

胶东玲珑金矿区碲化物形成条件及其对金富集过程的约束SCIEI北大核心CSCD

胶东地区探明金储量超过5000t,是我国最重要的金矿集区。玲珑金矿区位于胶东西北部招-平断裂北段,具有典型含金石英脉矿床的特征。矿区部分矿段产出富碲铋化物的明金矿石,是研究富碲铋化物金矿床成因和金超级富集机制的理想对象。通过显微岩相学观察、扫描电镜及电子探针分析,首次对胶东玲珑金矿区富碲铋化物明金矿石的矿物组合和形成机制进行了较为详细的研究。玲珑金矿区含明金矿石中的金矿物主要为含银自然金,成色整体较高,平均为894。共发现了五种与自然金共生的碲化物,分别是辉碲铋矿、碲铋矿、碲银矿、碲铋银矿和碲镍矿,其中辉碲铋矿含量最多。通过矿物共生组合研究及物理化学条件分析,确定成矿流体的碲逸度范围为-12.6相似文献   

新疆西天山吐拉苏火山岩盆地浅成低温热液-斑岩型金多金属成矿系统的形成与演化

新疆西天山吐拉苏地区发育的与中酸性火山-次火山岩有关的浅成低温热液-斑岩型金多金属成矿系统,是在晚古生代北天山洋向南部伊犁-中天山板块之下俯冲消减的活动大陆边缘背景下形成的。赋矿的大哈拉军山组火山岩及相关的次火山岩形成于晚泥盆世-早石炭世,岩石总体显示钾质-高钾质、准铝质-过铝质的钙碱性-高钾钙碱性特征,其轻稀土富集、Eu负异常显著、大离子亲石元素富集和高场强元素亏损等,均显示出俯冲带岛弧岩浆作用的特点。阿希(低硫型)和京希-伊尔曼得(高硫型)浅成低温热液金矿床以及塔北、吐拉苏铅锌矿床,受大哈拉军山组火山岩中的断裂破碎带以及具高孔隙度和渗透率的岩性控制;塔吾尔别克斑岩型金矿化主要受斑岩体及火山岩中的断裂和裂隙系统控制,并很可能存在浅成低温热液型金矿化的套合或叠加。硫、铅、碳、氧同位素特征显示,成矿物质主要来自岩浆所分泌的热液和/或赋矿的火山-次火山岩。根据成矿系统形成后的保存和变化情况,认为在吐拉苏盆地内剥蚀程度较低的地区,浅成低温热液型金铅锌矿床具备良好的保存条件,同时在其深部还应注意寻找斑岩型或矽卡岩型铜金矿床。     

Chemistry and Occurrences of Native Tellurium from Epithermal Gold Deposits in Japan

The chemistry and mode of occurrences of native tellurium in the epithermal gold ores from Teine, Kobetsuzawa, Mutsu, Kawazu, Suzaki and Iriki in Japan are examined. Mineral assemblages in contact with native tellurium are: quartz‐sylvanite at Teine, quartz‐hessite‐sylvanite‐tellurantimony at Kobetsuzawa, quartz at Mutsu, quartz‐stutzite‐hessite‐sylvanite‐tetradymite at Kawazu, quartz at Suzaki, and quartz‐goldfieldite at Iriki. The peak patterns of XRD for native tellurium from these six ores are nearly identical to that of JCPDS 4–554. Their chemical compositions of Te range from 98.16 to 100.73 wt.%, showing nearly pure tellurium. Other elements detected are: Se of 0–0.85 and Cu of 0–0.74 at Teine, Sb of 0.45–0.47 and Se of 0.19–0.27 at Kawazu, Se of 0.22–1.11 and Sb of 0–0.49 at Suzaki, and Cu of 0.69–0.98, As of 0.22–0.28 and Bi of 0–0.22 wt.% at Iriki. No other elements are detected in the ores of Kobetsuzawa and Mutsu. The ranges of associated minor compositions are consistent with those of the experimental phase. The differences would be related to associate minerals. The mineral assemblages in these ores agree well with the previously proposed experimental phase relations in Au‐Ag‐Te ternary system for 120–280°C. The Suzaki ore has high Te‐Au assemblage: from calaverite‐sylvanite‐krennerite via native tellurium to petzite, with changing mineralization stage, whereas the Kobetsuzawa and the Kawazu ores have high Te‐Ag assemblage of tellurium‐hessite, and native tellurium‐stutzite‐hessite‐sylvanite, respectively. The Teine ore has intermediate assemblage of native tellurium‐sylvanite. The mineral assemblages in the Au‐Ag‐Te system are related to the hydrothermal environment especially to the pH condition, i.e. Au rich assemblages under acidic and Ag rich assemblages under intermediate pH conditions, being supported by alteration mineral species. The other telluriferous epithermal gold deposits not in association with native tellurium such as Agawa, Date, Takeno, Chugu, Chitose, Sado and Kushikino are estimated to have been formed under higher pH conditions as adularia and calcite occur in these deposits. The pH‐Eh diagram for aqueous tellurium species and tellurium minerals at 250°C indicates that the region of native tellurium occurs between those of aqueous telluride and tellurous species at lower pH, being consistent with their mineral assemblages in ores and alteration envelopes.     

Base and precious metal mineralization in Middle Jurassic rocks of the Lesser Caucasus: A review of geology and metallogeny and new data from the Kapan,Alaverdi and Mehmana districts

The polymetallic Cu–Au–Ag–Zn ± Pb, Cu–Au and Cu deposits in the Kapan, Alaverdi and Mehmana mining districts of Armenia and the Nagorno–Karabakh region form part of the Tethyan belt. They are hosted by Middle Jurassic rocks of the Lesser Caucasus paleo-island arc, which can be divided into the Kapan Zone and the Somkheto–Karabakh Island Arc. Mineralization in Middle Jurassic rocks of this paleo-island arc domain formed during the first of three recognized Mesozoic to Cenozoic metallogenic epochs. The Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous metallogenic epoch comprises porphyry Cu, skarn and epithermal deposits related to Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous intrusions. The second and third metallogenic epochs of the Lesser Caucasus are represented by Late Cretaceous volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits with transitional features towards epithermal mineralization and by Eocene to Miocene world-class porphyry Mo–Cu and epithermal precious metal deposits, respectively.The ore deposits in the Kapan, Alaverdi and Mehmana mining districts are poorly understood and previous researchers named them as copper–pyrite, Cu–Au or polymetallic deposits. Different genetic origins were proposed for their formation, including VMS and porphyry-related scenarios. The ore deposits in the Kapan, Alaverdi and Mehmana mining districts are characterized by diverse mineralization styles, which include polymetallic veins, massive stratiform replacement ore bodies at lithological contacts, and stockwork style mineralization. Sericitic, argillic and advanced argillic alteration assemblages are widespread in the deposits which have intermediate to high-sulfidation state mineral parageneses that consist of tennantite–tetrahedrite plus chalcopyrite and enargite–luzonite–colusite, respectively. The ore deposits are spatially associated with differentiated calc-alkaline intrusions and pebble dykes are widespread. Published δ³⁴S values for sulfides and sulfates are in agreement with a magmatic source for the bulk sulfur whereas published δ³⁴S values of sulfate minerals partly overlap with the isotopic composition of contemporaneous seawater. Published mineralization ages demonstrate discrete ore forming pulses from Middle Jurassic to the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous boundary, indicating time gaps of 5 to 20 m.y. in between the partly subaqueous deposition of the host rocks and the epigenetic mineralization.Most of the described characteristics indicate an intrusion-related origin for the ore deposits in Middle Jurassic rocks of the Lesser Caucasus, whereas a hybrid VMS–epithermal–porphyry scenario might apply for deposits with both VMS- and intrusion-related features.The volcanic Middle Jurassic host rocks for mineralization and Middle to Late Jurassic intrusive rocks from the Somkheto–Karabakh Island Arc and the Kapan Zone show typical subduction-related calc-alkaline signature. They are enriched in LILE such as K, Rb and Ba and show negative anomalies in HFSE such as Nb and Ta. The ubiquitous presence of amphibole in Middle Jurassic volcanic rocks reflects magmas with high water contents. Flat REE patterns ([La/Yb]_N = 0.89–1.23) indicate a depleted mantle source, and concave-upward (listric-shaped) MREE–HREE patterns ([Dy/Yb]_N = 0.75–1.21) suggest melting from a shallow mantle reservoir. Similar trace element patterns of Middle Jurassic rocks from the Somkheto–Karabakh Island Arc and the Kapan Zone indicate that these two tectonic units form part of one discontinuous segmented arc. Similar petrogenetic and ore-forming processes operated along its axis and Middle Jurassic volcanic and volcanosedimentary rocks constitute the preferential host for polymetallic Cu–Au–Ag–Zn ± Pb, Cu–Au and Cu mineralization, both in the Somkheto–Karabakh Island Arc and the Kapan Zone.     

Quantitative analysis of anomalous sources and geochemical signatures in the Walker Lake quadrangle of Nevada and California

A new quantitative transportation model for geochemical elements in stream sediment samples is proposed and used to estimate mineral sources of anomalous concentrations and to adjust both location and concentration for the transportation effect. Subsequent to transportation analysis, data on 14 geochemical elements in the Walker Lake quadrangle are analyzed for geochemical signatures for three types of mineralization environments: epithermal gold-silver deposits, porphyry-skarn copper deposits, and a mixed occurrence. Geochemical signatures are analyzed using a multidimensional scaling method referred to as the p_ijk model, which is a factor-like model generalized to include nonlinear associations, as well as linear, among triple variables (elements). A result of this analysis is that Pb is the best indicator for epithermal gold-silver mineralization, Mo and Zn for mixed mineralization, and Cu for porphyry-skarn mineralization.     

A comparative mineralogical study of Te-rich magmatic-hydrothermal systems in northeastern Greece

Summary Several magmatic-hydrothermal systems in northeastern Greece (western Thrace and Limnos Island) are highly enriched in tellurides which, in addition to native gold and electrum, represent major carriers of precious metals in the ore. Deposition near the porphyry-epithermal transition for several systems is indicated by field relations and by the presence of key minerals (Pb- and Ag-rich tellurides, Bi-sulfosalts and Bi-tellurides/tellurosulfides). Hessite, stützite, sylvanite, petzite, coloradoite, altaite, unnamed Ag-sulfotelluride, native tellurium and electrum are abundant in intermediate sulfidation quartz-carbonate veins together with zincian tetrahedrite-group minerals, chalcopyrite and galena. The presence of hessite, goldfieldite, native gold and enargite or famatinite suggests deposition at a high sulfidation state. The main stage of telluride deposition took place at ∼275 °C at log fTe₂ values of −8.5 to −7.1 and log fS₂ values of −10.8 to −9.0, based on the Fe-content in sphalerite and the sulfide-telluride mineralogy. The close spatial association of telluride mineralization with intrusive centers of intermediate composition, the base metal enrichment and the trace element signature involving Au, Ag, Te, Bi, Sn and Mo suggest that ore-forming components were introduced at the porphyry-epithermal transition. Potential sources of tellurium are the high-K calc-alkaline (western Thrace) to shoshonitic (Limnos) intrusive rocks.     

Te and Se mineralogy of the high-sulfidation Kochbulak and Kairagach epithermal gold telluride deposits (Kurama Ridge, Middle Tien Shan, Uzbekistan)

Summary The Late Paleozoic Kochbulak and Kairagach deposits are located on the northern slope of the Kurama Ridge, Middle Tien Shan, in the same volcanic structure and the same ore-forming system. Au–Ag–Cu–Bi–Te–Se mineralization is confined to veins and dissemination zones accompanied by quartz-sericite wall-rock alteration. The tellurides, calaverite, altaite, hessite, and tetradymite are widespread at both deposits; at Kairagach selenides and sulfoselenides of Bi and Pb are common, while at Kochbulak Bi and Pb telluroselenides and sulfotelluroselenides are typical. The paragenetic sequence of telluride assemblages are similar for both deposits and change from calaverite + altaite + native Au to sylvanite + Bi tellurides + native Te, Bi tellurides + native Au, and, finally, to Au + Ag tellurides with time. These mineralogical changes are accompanied by an increase in the Ag content of native gold that correlates with a decrease in temperature, fTe₂ and fO₂ and an increase in pH.     

Chemical,isotopic and mineralogical characteristics of volcanogenic epithermal fluorite deposits on the Permo-Mesozoic foreland of the Andean volcanic arc in Patagonia (Argentina)

Epithermal deposits mined for fluorite in Patagonia, Argentina, are closely related to late Triassic through Jurassic magmatic activity which brought about felsic to intermediate magmatic rocks. The fluorite mineralization in the Patagonian epithermal system resulted from gaseous F-and CO₂-enriched magmas which lead to an explosive phreatomagmatic volcanism, when getting in contact with groundwater near the surface. As a result of these hydrothermal processes, rapid cooling took place in the epithermal mineralization. Changes in the viscosity along with the cooling down of mineralizing fluids caused mottled mineral colors blurring the boundaries between the stages and ore textures.The fluids accountable for the main constituents fluorite, quartz, barite and silica were operative over a vertical extension of roughly 600 m. Their temperature of formation dropped from 379 °C through 64 °C, while the pH decreased from the heat center towards the paleosurface under oxidizing conditions. This steep temperature gradient conducive to the telescoping of mineral associations into each other was accompanied by a rapid loss in CO₂, and a mixing of meteoric and magmatic fluids. Even the boundary between the hypogene and supergene alteration cannot be drawn precisely within the assemblage of Mn oxides, which bridge the gap between hypogene and supergen mineralization. The physical-chemical parameters of the fluids, particularly, the redox conditions did not allow sulfides to be preserved. A classification of the epithermal system as to its degree of sulfidation is based on K-feldspar and kaolinite which are present in significant amounts, whereas APS (aluminum-phosphate-sulfate) minerals are absent. Therefore a categorization as an epithermal fluorite deposit of low- to intermediate sulfidation is justified, because the only mineral of economic interest in the system is fluorite.The data obtained during this joint study render the Patagonian fluorite district a reference type of fluorite in an epithermal system of low- to intermediate sulfidation which are widespread in Argentina, e.g., Sierras Pampeanas, and evolved on part of the stable craton, called Gondwana and which grade into epithermal Au, Ag, In, Pb and Zn deposits.     

Geology and Geochemistry of the Dashuigou Tellurium Deposit,Western Sichuan,China

The Dashuigou tellurium deposit, located on the western margin of the Yangtze platform, is unique. The deposit is hosted by Triassic metabasalt 50 to 80 meters thick. The orebodies occur as a group of NNE-striking parallel veins. Mineralization developed in three stages: Stage I— pyrrhotite-pyrite, Stage II—tetradymite, and Stage III—chalcopyrite-pyrite. Stage II is the principal tellurium mineralization stage and the tellurium-bearing minerals are mainly tetradymite, tsumoite, tellurbismuth, joseite, calaverite, stuetzite, and native tellurium. The general ore grade of the tellurium in Stage II ranges from 0.2 to 5 wt%, and it reaches 15 to 25 wt% for the massive ores. The dominant gangue minerals are calcite and dolomite, with minor biotite, muscovite, albite, quartz, and chlorite.

Fluid-inclusion studies of calcite, dolomite, and quartz from Stages I, II, and III yield homogenization temperatures of 356° to 260° C (mean = 320° C), 295° to 198° C (mean = 240°), and 235° to 152° C (mean = 170° C), respectively. Salinities of primary fluid inclusions in all three stages are 1.5 to 5.8 wt% NaCl equivalent, 9 to 15.2 wt% NaCl equivalent, and 2.8 to 3.0 wt% NaCl equivalent, respectively.

Isotopic studies show that δ34 values of sulfides range from -2.2 to +2.8 per mil. δ¹³C values of calcites and dolomites in the ore veins range from -5.3 to -7.42 per mil, and δ¹⁸O values range from +10.9 to +13.1 per mil, which are quite different from the δ¹³C values of+1.0 to +2.8 per mil and δ¹⁸O values of +16.8 to +28.5 per mil for the calcites from the Triassic carbonates in the deposit. The δD and δ¹⁸O values of muscovite and quartz were measured to be -61 to -54 per mil and +9.9 to +13.0 per mil, respectively. Values of δ¹⁸O_water computed from fluid-inclusion trapping temperatures are +3.9 and +7 per mil.

A date of 93 Ma was obtained through measurement of muscovite from the No. 12 ore vein. Sulfur-, oxygen-, carbon-, and hydrogenisotope data indicate that the ore-forming substances of the Dashuigou tellurium deposit were derived from deep-seated sources, and the mineralizations probably are associated with Late Mesozoic alkaline or alkaline granitic magmatism. The estimated sulfur fugacities (fs₂) are 10^?16.7 for Stage I and 10^?14 to 10^15.5 for Stage II, whereas the tellurium fugacities (f_Te2) are 10^?15 to 10^?14 and 10^?11.2 to 10^?10.5, respectively.     

Mineral Paragenesis and Ore‐Forming Processes of the Dongping Gold Deposit,Hebei Province,China

The Dongping gold deposit is located near the center of the northern margin of the North China Craton. It is hosted in the Shuiquangou syenite and characterized by large amounts of tellurides. Numerous studies have addressed this deposit; the mineral paragenesis and ore‐forming processes, however, are still poorly studied. In this contribution, a new mineral paragenesis has been evaluated to further understand ore formation, including sulfides (pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, molybdenite, and bornite), tellurides (altaite, calaverite, hessite, muthmannite, petzite, rucklidgeite, sylvanite, tellurobismuthite, tetradymite, and volynskite), and native elements (tellurium and gold). Molybdenite, muthmannite, rucklidgeite, and volynskite are reported for the first time in this deposit. We consider the Dongping gold deposit mainly formed in the Devonian, and the ore‐forming processes and the physicochemical conditions for ore formation can be reconstructed based on our newly identified ore paragenesis, that is, iron oxides → (CO₂ effervescence) → sulfides → (fTe₂/fS₂ ratio increase) → Pb‐Bi‐tellurides → (condensation of H₂Te vapor) → Au‐Ag‐tellurides → (mixing with oxidizing water) → carbonate and microporous gold → secondary minerals → secondary minerals. The logfO₂ values increase from the early to late stages, while the fH₂S and logfS₂ values increase initially and then decrease. CO₂ effervescence is the main mechanism of sulfides precipitation; this sulfidation and condensation of H₂Te vapor lead to deposition of tellurides. The development of microporous gold indicates that the deposit might experience overprint after mineralization. The Dongping gold deposit has a close genetic relationship with the Shuiquangou syenite, and tellurium likely originated from Shuiquangou alkaline magmatic degassing.     

Mineral Paragenesis of the Lepanto Copper and Gold and the Victoria Gold Deposits, Mankayan Mineral District, Philippines

Abstract: Mineral paragenesis of the alteration, ore and gangue minerals of the Lepanto epithermal copper‐gold deposit and the Victoria gold deposit, Mankayan Mineral District, Northern Luzon, Philippines, is discussed. The principal ore minerals of the Lepanto copper‐gold deposit are enargite and luzonite, with significant presence of tennantite‐tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, native gold/electrum and gold‐silver tellurides. Pervasive alteration zonations are commonly observed from silicification outward to advanced argillic then to propylitic zone. The ore mineralogy of the Lepanto copper‐gold deposit suggests high f_S2 in the early stages of mineralization corresponding to the deposition of the enargite‐luzonite‐pyrite assemblage. Subsequent decrease in the f_S2 formed the chalcopyrite‐tennantite‐pyrite assemblage. An increase in the f_S2 of the fluids with the formation of the covellite‐digenite‐telluride assemblage caused the deposition of native gold/electrum and gold‐silver tellurides. The principal ore minerals of the Victoria gold deposit are sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite and native gold/electrum. The alteration halos are relatively narrow and in an outward sequence from the ore, silica alteration grades to illitic‐argillic alteration, which in turn grades to propylitic alteration. The Victoria gold mineralization has undergone early stages of silica supersaturation leading to quartz deposition. Vigorous boiling increased the pH of the fluids that led to the deposition of sulfides and carbonates. The consequent decrease in H₂S precipitated the gold. Gypsum and anhydrite mainly occur as overprints that cut the carbonate‐silica stages. The crosscutting and overprinting relationships of the Victoria quartz‐gold‐base metal veins on the Lepanto copper‐gold veins manifest the late introduction of near neutral pH hydrothermal fluids.     

碱性岩相关铜-金(钼)矿床的研究进展

由于超过20%的大型-超大型铜-金(钼)矿床与碱性岩浆有关,因此,该类矿床引起矿床学家的广泛关注。碱性岩有关的铜-金矿床的成矿岩体、物化条件及围岩种类各具特色,成矿成因类型多样,主要的成因类型为斑岩型铜-金(钼)、浅成低温热液脉型金-铜(钼)。总体上,该类矿床的矿化和蚀变具有一定的特征:该类矿床多产出在伸展环境下、均富碲化物矿化、有大量的钾质交代作用、含有氟矿物质和钒云母等,成矿蚀变亦有一定的规律。长英质岩石中经常发生钾长石蚀变,而绢云母、碳酸盐和钾长石的混合蚀变常出现在中基性侵入岩中,水热合成石英和酸性蚀变十分罕见。这种特征矿化可能与碱性岩浆流体演化有关,这种流体富含CO_2,且在高氧逸度、低硫逸度条件下释放。在伸展背景下的碱性-钙碱性省寻找此类矿床具有巨大的勘查潜力,尤其在碱性岩体中心及其外围可能形成勘探的靶区。在中国与碱性岩有关的金矿床亦有广阔的找矿前景,在借鉴国外寻找此类矿床经验的同时,仍需加强对与矿化作用有关的岩浆体活动的研究。     

Genesis of the Zhaxikang epithermal Pb-Zn-Sb deposit in southern Tibet,China: Evidence for a magmatic link

The Zhaxikang Pb-Zn-Sb deposit is one of the most important deposits in the Southern Tibet metallogenic belt. Based on field geology, petrography, melt- and fluid inclusions and C-H-O isotopes, we describe and discuss the mineralization, alteration, and their possible link with magmatic fluids. Our results show that the Zhaxikang deposit shares many geological and geochemical similarities with typical intermediate-sulfidation (IS) epithermal deposits. The Pb-Zn-Sb mineralization is closely related to Fe-Mn carbonate- and silicic alterations, which formed the outer rim around the greisen in the Cuonadong Dome. Orebodies occur mainly as structurally-controlled veins and breccia dikes, with major minerals include sphalerite, galena, pyrite, arsenopyrite, and Fe-Mn carbonates. Main stage ore-forming fluids were of medium temperature (214–292 °C), low salinity (2.6–5.3 wt.% NaCl eqv.) and CO₂-bearing.Melt/fluid inclusions in beryl and quartz from the pegmatite indicate that the primary magmatic fluids were derived from the melt-fluid immiscibility. The magmatic fluids were of low salinity (0.2–7.9 wt.% NaCl eqv.), high temperature (298–457 °C) and CO₂-rich, and contained minor CH₄, N₂, C₂H₆, C₃H₈ and C₆H₆. The presence of Mn-Fe carbonates and daughter gahnite minerals in the beryl-hosted inclusions indicates high Mn, Fe and Zn contents in the parental magma and related magmatic fluids. This implies a genetic link between magmatic fluids and the Pb-Zn-Sb mineralization, as also supported by Ar-Ar dating and H-O-C isotopic evidence. We suggest that the Zhaxikang is best classified as an IS epithermal deposit, and the ore-forming fluids are likely to be magma-derived. Boiling of the magmatic fluids led to high-salinity fluids and metal enrichment. High regional geothermal gradient caused by the thermal doming event may have facilitated long distance transportation of magmatic fluids, and led to the formation of a wide alteration zone and distal Pb-Zn-Sb mineralization. The temperature drop and meteoric water involvement may have precipitated the Pb-Zn-Sn minerals in the distal fault systems.     

Thermodynamic study of the association and separation of copper and gold in the Shizishan ore field, Tongling, Anhui Province, China

The Shizishan ore field is the largest gold–copper ore field in the Tongling ore district of Anhui Province, China. Copper and gold deposits in the district are present as one-commodity deposits or as deposits with both commodities. Copper and gold mineralization are either cogenetic or are temporally and spatially distinct. We present the results of systematic geochemical analysis of fluid inclusions from typical Au–Cu deposits in the Shizishan ore field; these data are used to determine the solubility of Cu and Au in the ore-forming fluids and to ascertain the mechanisms and factors that controlled variations in the association and separation of copper and gold mineralization. Our results indicate that copper in the ore-forming fluids was transported as CuCl₂⁻ and CuCl⁰ complexes and that the solubility of copper was controlled by variations in Cl⁻ concentration. In addition, the precipitation of copper was controlled by changes in temperature, pH, fO₂, and fO₂. In comparison, gold in the ore-forming fluids was transported as Au(HS)₂⁻ and Au₂S(HS)₂²⁻ complexes, and the solubility of gold was controlled by variations in total sulfur concentration; the precipitation of gold was controlled by temperature, pH, fO₂, and fO₂. These differences between the two elements meant that copper and gold in the ore-forming fluids responded in different ways to changes in physicochemical conditions. Copper precipitated under relatively acidic conditions at high temperatures, while gold precipitated under weakly alkaline conditions at relatively low temperatures; this dissociation resulted in the temporal and spatial separation and zonation of copper and gold mineralization in the Shizishan ore field.