On the structure and formation of fracture zones

Studies of the oceanic fracture zones, as well as field observations of the on-land parts of a fracture zone in Iceland, show that there are numerous tension fractures, normal faults, small-scale grabens and dykes within, and trending subparallel with, the fracture zones. These structures indicate that, in addition to the shear displacement, there is considerable extension associated with the development of fracture zones and that many of them may be regarded as complex graben structures. The ridges surrounding the continents of Africa and Antarctica are examples of mid-ocean ridges that are moving away from the continental margins where they originated and therefore expanding. Here it is suggested that as the perimeter of an expanding ridge increases, the tensile stresses associated with the ridge extension may contribute to the formation of fracture zones.     

Timing of Uralian orogenic gold mineralization at Kochkar in the evolution of the East Uralian granite-gneiss terrane

Gold mineralization at Kochkar (Urals, Russia) is hosted mainly by quartz lodes, which developed at lithological contacts between mafic dikes and granitoids of the Plast massif during late Carboniferous to early Permian, regional E–W compression in the East Uralian Zone (EUZ). The alteration mineralogy in mafic dikes comprises biotite, actinolite, albite, K-feldspar, quartz, epidote, tourmaline, sericite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, fahlores, galena, bismuthinite, and gold, and in Plast granitoids quartz, sericite, calcite, epidote, and ore minerals. Geochemically, an enrichment of Si, K, Rb, Ba, S, base metals, W, and Au can be observed. The ore fluid had δ¹⁸O values between 8.2‰ and 9.5‰ typical for metamorphic or deep magmatic fluids. The tectonometamorphic evolution of the EUZ is marked by peak metamorphic conditions at 635±40°C and 5–6 kbar through 500±20°C during gold mineralization, and 300–350°C and 2–3 kbar. The last event was dated on a late, barren quartz vein formed during greenschist facies metamorphism at 265±3 Ma by the Rb–Sr method. Fluids related to this overprint had a δ¹⁸O value of 5.2‰ and an initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of 0.70685 indicating that they are largely equilibrated with metamorphic lithologies of the EUZ. The Plast granitoids and the adjacent Borisov granite, which was dated at 358±23 Ma (U–Pb zircon age), have an adakitic character. This, together with the arc-signature of the mafic dikes, supports the setting of the EUZ within the Valerianovsky continental arc. Eastward subduction of the Uralian Ocean below this arc began during the late Devonian to early Carboniferous. Between 320 and 265 Ma, the oblique closure of the ocean resulted in doming of granitoid massifs in a sinistral transpressional regime, subsequent retrograde gold mineralization during E–W compression and a later greenschist facies overprint. This long-lasting retrograde evolution of the EUZ was caused by the lack of postcollisional collapse. Heat for a “deep-later" type of metamorphism and triggering the auriferous fluid system was supplied by radiogenic heating of an overthickened crust. The greenschist facies overprint at Kochkar and coeval crustal melting in the EUZ was additionally initiated by local external heating of the terrane. This could have been caused by syn- to postcollisional slab rollback or delamination resulting in magmatic underplating of the EUZ, which postdates orogenic gold mineralization at Kochkar. The tectonic interpretation of the EUZ indicates that gold mineralization at Kochkar formed in a mid-crustal environment of a continental magmatic arc at the cessation of active subduction predating post orogenic plutonism.     

Peculiarities of the structure and evolution of the Riphean Ai volcanic complex,South Urals

The Ai volcanic complex is a part of the Ai Formation, which begins the stratotypical Riphean section in the South Urals and lies on the Archean Taratash metamorphic complex. New geochemical and isotope data were obtained for the volcanic rocks. The dominant porphyritic plagioclase and pyroxene trachibasalts associated with dacites are characterized by higher contents of alkalis and titanium, which is typical of rift volcanism. However, other geochemical data, e.g., decreased Ni contents, are beyond of this scheme. The U-Pb (SHRIMP) age of zircons from dacites is 1415 ± 11 Ma.     

Protolith and deformation age of the Gneiss-Plate of Kartali in the southern East Uralian Zone

The southern East Uralian Zone consists of granite-gneiss complexes that are embedded in geological units with typical oceanic characteristics. These gneisses have been interpreted as parts of a microcontinent that collided during the Uralian orogeny. The gneiss-plate of Kartali forms the south eastern part of the gneiss mantle surrounding the Dzhabyk pluton. Its post-collisional protolith age of 327±4 Ma is inconsistent with the microcontinent model. The deformation of the gneisses took place in 290±4 Ma at the time of the intrusion of the Dzhabyk magmas. Granites and gneisses cooled and were exhumed together. Therefore, we interpret the gneiss complexes of the East Uralian Zone as marginal parts of the granitic batholiths that were deformed during the ascent and emplacement of the pluton. From Nd and Sr isotope constraints we conclude that the magma source of the gneiss protolith was an island arc. Since no evidence for old continental crust has been discovered in the East Uralian Zone, the Uralian orogeny can no longer be interpreted as a continent-island arc-microcontinent collision. Instead, the geochemical data presented within this paper indicate that the stacking and thrusting of island arc complexes played an important role in the Uralian orogeny.     

上扬子地区褶皱-冲断带的运动学特征

上扬子地区褶皱-冲断带的运动学特征一直缺乏系统研究。在前人基础上,结合野外认识、地震地质剖面解释、构造活动定年等相关成果分析认为,上扬子地区印支期以来至少存在着3组不同方向的区域挤压应力。其中,NW-SE向挤压应力具印支期、燕山期与喜马拉雅期多期活动特点,近SN向挤压应力主要在燕山晚期,NE-SW向挤压作用主要发生在喜马拉雅期。由此所形成的造山带至前陆褶皱-冲断带的运动学结构模式存在较大差异,即龙门山造山带发育了较为典型的根带、中带、锋带与外缘带等复杂的逆冲推覆构造系统,米仓山与南大巴山造山带缺乏中带变形的特征,雪峰山陆内前陆盆地系统则表现为逆冲的锋带在倾向上传播距离长、在走向上影响范围大等特点。上扬子地区褶皱-冲断带的运动学特征控制了不同时期油气的运移方向及聚集场所。     

Development of near-surface dilatancy zones as a possible cause for seismic emission anomalies before strong earthquakes

Based on mathematical modeling, the paper presents the estimation of the length of dilatancy zones developed near a free surface during the preparation of earthquakes. An algorithm for the calculation of dilatancy zones has been developed and applied for numerical modeling. Estimated examples of the development of near-surface dilatancy zones before the Kamchatka earthquakes with a magnitude M = 6.7–7.8 are given. The results of the numerical experiments under the accepted assumptions solve the problem of the long-range influence of a future earthquake source on a limited remote zone of microseismic information gathering: the model admits the development of near-surface dilatancy zones in the vicinity of a station recording seismic noise that can trigger forerunner anomalies.     

Crustal features of some main suture zones along the European Geotraverse

The European Geotraverse (EGT) crosses along a 4000 km profile from the North Cape to Tunisia the following main suture zones:

the Tornquist-Teisseyre zone between the Baltic Shield and the Variscan realm,

the transition zones between Rhenohercynian and Saxothuringian as well as between Saxothuringian and Moldanubian zones in the Variscan part of central Europe, and

the collision zone between the European continent and the Adriatic microplate.

Some structural aspects of these suture zones are described.     

Metamorphism and kinematics of the early deformation in the Variscan suture of SW Iberia

The early (Devonian) collisional stage in SW Iberia has been investigated through the analysis of deformation in the Cubito‐Moura schists, the main lithology of an Allochthonous Complex putatively rooted in the suture between the Ossa‐Morena and South Portuguese zones. The first deformation in these schists (D₁) is recorded as a S₁‐L₁ mylonitic fabric well preserved in early quartz veins. Subsequent D₂ deformation caused the main folds and the main (S₂) foliation. After restoration, the stretching lineation (L₁) trends at a small angle with the Ossa‐Morena/South Portuguese suture. This trend, together with the top‐to‐the‐east kinematics determined from quartz microfabric is indicative of an oblique left‐lateral collisional scenario in SW Iberia. Chlorite–white K‐mica–quartz ± chloritoid multi‐equilibrium calculations yield P–T conditions in the range 0.9–1.2 GPa and 300–400 °C, during the first collisional stage. P–T conditions during D₂ were 0.3–0.8 GPa and 400–450 °C, thus indicating an important stage of exhumation of the Allochthonous Complex during these two collisional events, after subduction of the Ossa‐Morena Zone margin under the South Portuguese Zone continental crust. In the general context of the Variscan orogen, dominated by dextral collision, the left‐lateral convergence in SW Iberia can be explained in terms of the Avalonian salient represented by the South Portuguese Zone, which would impinge between Iberia and Morocco.     

Peculiarities in the deep structure of the Sakhalin-Hokkaido-Primorye zone

The results of detailed seismic crustal investigations in the marginal part of the transition zone from the Asian continent to the Pacific Ocean are discussed. The observations were carried out during 1963 and 1964 by expeditions of the Institute of Physics of the Earth of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences and the Sakhalin Complex Research Institute, Siberian Division of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences. The results of these measurements have been described in detail in a monograph, by Zverev and Tulina, entitled Deep Seismic Sounding of the Earth's Crust in the Sakhalin-Hokkaido-Primorye Zone (1971).

The distribution of seismic crustal characteristics is studied and schematic maps of the surface of presumably Cretaceous and Meso-Paleozoic (or pre-Paleozoic) sediments near Sakhalin Island as well as of the mantle surface in the Sakhalin-Hokkaido-Primorye zone are presented.     

大湄公河次地区主要结合带的对比与连接

大湄公河次地区有多条结合带。根据它们及相关构造单元的时空演化和配置关系,对其南北延伸和连接提出了一些新的意见:(1)印缅山脉结合带向北延与葡萄-密支那结合带汇合后,西接雅鲁藏布江结合带;(2)葡萄-密支那结合带西接雅鲁藏布江结合带,向南西被实皆右行断裂错断,其错断部分为西缅中央火山弧带北段的夏杜苏-隆东带,其南段可能潜没在古近纪沉积层之下;(3)班公湖-怒江结合带南延接潞西-抹谷结合带,再南可能潜伏在墨吉群和抹谷群推覆体之下;(4)昌宁-孟连结合带南延接清迈结合带,并在南奔一带与澜沧江结合带相交汇,原先的昌宁-孟连-清迈洋可能与西藏地区的马利-同卡裂谷盆地和双湖-冈玛错小洋盆构成一个类似现今日本海、东海海槽和南海那样呈串珠状分布的盆地带;(5)澜沧江结合带主体为一隐伏在东达山-临沧-景栋花岗岩带推覆体之下的隐伏结合带,向南接清莱-湄他一带的隐伏结合带和马来半岛的文冬-劳勿结合带,向北在西金乌兰湖一带与可可西里-金沙江结合带相交汇,可可西里-澜沧江-文冬-劳勿结合带构成晚古生代冈瓦纲大陆和劳亚大陆的分界;(6)难河-程逸结合带向北延至思茅西边小黑江一带,可能终止在小黑江以北地区,向南接沙缴和贡布-何仙结合带;(7)哀牢山-斯雷博河结合带是新厘定的结合带,从哀牢山向南经南乌河带、老挝奠边府的镁铁质和超镁铁质岩线接黎府结合带和斯雷博河结合带;(8)马江结合带同哀牢山带一样,是一个早、晚古生代两个结合带相叠合的带,早古生代的结合带西接金沙江-哀牢山带,向东经红河左行断裂完全复位后可接越北的斋江结合带(华南洋俯冲形成),与之相应的,它们北面的右江裂谷盆地可与黑河裂谷盆地(或小洋盆)和甘孜-理塘小洋盆相对应,构成一个围绕峨眉地幔柱,并受其影响而形成的晚古生代末-早中生代的盆地带。     

Position of the southern marginal suture of the East European Craton

Old and modern data are given and discussed. They allow us to decide where the real position of the south marginal suture of the East European Craton is. According to the geophysical and aerogeophysical studies, Paleozoic deposits of the Karpinskii Ridge are bedded upon deeply sunken continuation of Archean-Proterozoic complexes comprising the Voronezh massif and crystalline rocks belonging to the Astrakhan Dome. The latter have a pre-Riphean age. It is possible that the crust in the southeastern part of ridge in a narrow zone with >20 km depth of the basement surface (BS) and, partially, in the Sarpinskii trough has oceanic origin.     

Segregation freezing as the cause of suction force for ice lens formation

We propose a new freezing mechanism, called segregation freezing, to explain the generation of the suction force that draws pore water up to the freezing surface of a growing ice lens. We derive the segregation freezing temperature by applying thermodynamics to a soil mechanics concept that distinguishes the mechanically effective pressure from the mechanically neutral pressure. The frost-heaving pressure is formulated as part of the solution of the differential equations of the simultaneous flow of heat and water, of which the segregation freezing temperature is one of the boundary conditions.