Dykes, faults and palaeostresses in the Teno and Anaga massifs of Tenerife (Canary Islands)

A structural field study was made of 578 sheet intrusions (mostly dykes) and 153 (mostly normal) faults dissecting the Anaga and Teno massifs, where a complex volcanic succession of Tertiary age (the ‘Old Basaltic Series’) representing the shield-building stage of Tenerife (Canary Islands) crops out. Many of the intrusions, mostly sub-vertical mafic dykes, are emplaced by multiple magma injections, with cumulative thicknesses mostly less than 2 m. Dyke tips are exposed and preserved for 12% of the dykes. Three differently oriented sets of dykes exist in the Anaga massif (NNW–SSE, NNE–SSW, E–W), whereas there is only one main set in Teno, trending NNW–SSE. Dyke swarms and other structural features having similar orientations also exist in other Canary Islands. A minimum value of the horizontal component of extension induced by dykes is computed using a step of 5° of azimuth, accounting also for the dip of dykes. The cumulative crustal dilation is at least 300 m (4%) in Anaga and 270 m (6%) in Teno; the maximum extension peaks at N75° in Anaga and N60° in Teno, indicating a general prevailing extension in direction ENE–WSW. Most of the measured faults are normal and strike NNW–SSE. Computation of palaeostresses from inversion of fault-slip data sets suggests the existence of a polyphase brittle deformation due to an extensional stress field with the minimum compressive principal axes trending NE–SW and WNW–ESE.     

Shear-wave splitting and reservoir crack characterization: the Coso geothermal field

This paper aims to improve current understanding of the subsurface fracture system in the Coso geothermal field, located in east-central California. The Coso reservoir is in active economic development, so that knowledge of the subsurface fracture system is of vital importance for an accurate evaluation of its geothermal potential and day-to-day production. To detect the geometry and density of fracture systems we applied the shear-wave splitting technique to a large number of high-quality seismograms from local microearthquakes recorded by a permanent, 16-station, down-hole, 3-component seismic array running at 480 samples/s. The analysis of shear-wave splitting (seismic birefringence) provides parameters directly related to the strike of the subsurface fractures and their density (number of cracks per unit volume), and, consequently, is an important technique to outline zones of high permeability. Three major fracture directions N10–30W, N0–20E, and N40–50E, of which the first and the second are the most prominent, were identified from the seismograms recorded by the 16-station down-hole array. All orientations are consistent with the known strike of local sets of faults and fractures in local wells and at the surface, as well as with previous analyses of seismic anisotropy in the region. The high quality of the recordings has allowed us to launch an unprecedented investigation into the characteristics of the temporal variations in crack polarization and crack density in a producing geothermal environment. Preliminary results point to significant temporal changes in shear-wave time delays, probably influenced by temporal changes in crack density within a period of 5 years (1996–2000). They are tentatively interpreted as due to a local 3% increase in shear-wave velocity in the southwestern part of the field during 1999.     

Azimuthal anisotropy of the P-wave velocity in the hypocentral volume of the Krn Mt. (Slovenia) earthquake sequence

Azimuthal anisotropy of P-wave velocity in the hypocentral volume of the Krn Mt. (Slovenia) earthquake sequence is measured using the differences of travel times and of travel paths of the Pg-phase towards the recording stations of the local and regional networks. The observed velocity varies between 6.0 km/s in the ENE–WSW direction and 6.4 km/s for waves propagating NNW–SSE. These directions closely match those of the mean regional principal stress components obtained from individual fault-plane solutions for events from the Krn Mt. sequence. A large part of observed anisotropy may be explained if hypocentral volume is assumed to be pervaded by a system of vertical/subvertical extensive-dilatancy anisotropy (EDA) cracks aligned under the influence of local tectonic stress field.     

The scattering of shear-waves in the crust

The two major sources of scattering for shear-waves in the crust, interactions with the topography at the surface and the effective anisotropy of aligned cracks throughout the rockmass, introduce first-order changes to the shear-wave particle-motion. At the surface, shear-waves are scattered by the topography within a wavelength or two of the recording site so that, unless the effective incidence angle is less than the critical angle sin^–1 V _S/V _P, the recorded waveforms may bear little relationship to the waveforms of the incident wave. Within the rockmass, shear-waves are scattered by extensive-dilatancy anisotropy (EDA), the distribution of stress-aligned fluid-filled cracks, microcracks, and preferentially oriented pore-space pervading most rocks in the crust. Analysis of this shear-wave splitting yields new information about the internal structure of thein situ rockmass which is not otherwise available.     

吉林省前郭地区地震各向异性的初步探讨

2013年11月吉林省前郭地区连续发生地震,本文利用11月1日到24日前郭地区6个流动地震台站记录的地震波形数据资料,使用剪切波分裂分析方法初步获得了每一个台站的剪切波快波偏振方向和慢波延迟时间,并初步探讨了研究区域地壳应力的分布.快波偏振方向主要为北西向和北东向,但是在整体上北西向的一致性较好,北东向的结果较为零散,反映了研究区域内复杂的应力特征.北西向的各向异性方向与发震断裂的走向垂直,与地震在空间上的展布方向一致.北西向的快剪切波偏振方向与地表运动速度场的方向也是一致的.快波偏振方向的分布与逆冲兼走滑的震源机制解结果基本吻合.慢波延迟时间的结果在0.85~6.93 ms·km^-1范围内.M_S5.3、5.8级地震前后慢波延迟时间的特征性变化反映了地壳应力的积累,以及随着地震发生应力的释放.     

Shear-wave splitting in the crust beneath the southeast Capital area of North China

This study focuses on the southeast Capital area of North China (38.5–39.85° N, 115.5–118.5° E). Shear-wave splitting parameters at 20 seismic stations are obtained by a systematic analysis method applied to data recorded by the Capital Area Seismograph Network (CASN) between the years 2002 and 2005. Although some differences in the results are observed, the average fast-wave polarization is N88.2° W ± 40.7° and the average normalized slow wave time delay is 3.55 ± 2.93 ms/km. The average polarization is consistent with the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress and also with the maximum principal strain derived from global positioning system measurements in North China. In spite of the uneven distribution of faults around the array stations that likely introduce some amount of scatter in the shear-wave splitting measurements, site-dependent polarizations of fast shear wave are clearly observed: in the northern half of the study area, the polarizations at CASN stations show E–W direction, whereas in the southern half the polarizations exhibit a variety of possible azimuths, thus suggesting dissimilar stress field and tectonic frame in both areas. Comparing the splitting results with those previously obtained in the northwest part of the region, we find a difference in polarization of about 20° between the southeast and northwest parts of the Capital area; also, in the southeast Capital area the average time delay is smaller than in the northwest Capital area, thus making clear that the magnitude of crustal seismic anisotropy is not the same in the two zones. Being the shear-wave splitting polarizations in the southeast Capital area, which lies on the basin, clearly different from the observed polarizations in the northwest Capital area, where uplifts and basin converge, it is quite evident that the shear-wave splitting results are consequence of the tectonics and stress field affecting the two regions.     

太行山山前断裂西南段地壳介质各向异性特征浅析

根据太行山山前断裂西南端, 包括石家庄及其周边地区的位于太行隆起与华北盆地两大地质构造单元交汇处的构造环境复杂情况。 该文应用SAM分析方法与首都圈近4年(2002年1月至2005年8月)的观测数据, 分析该区地壳介质各向异性特征。 研究结果表明, 太行山山前断裂西南端快剪切波平均偏振方向与华北区域最大主压应力场方向一致, 是区域应力环境的较好描述。 该区慢剪切波平均时间延迟比较首都圈西北部和东南部均较小。 区内台站的快剪切偏振方向既受到区域构造背景应力环境的作用, 又受到局部的NNE向构造带的制约, 是两者共同作用的结果。 井径(JNX)台站的剪切波分裂参数与紧邻台站有明显不同, 其原因有待更多数据加以补充并做细致讨论。     

2013年芦山MS7.0地震序列S波分裂特征

本文测定了2013年4月20日芦山M_S7.0地震震源区及其附近台站的S波分裂参数,包括快波偏振方向和慢波延迟时间,最终得到了40个台站的S波分裂结果．结果显示:在地震主破裂区内观测到的快波优势取向为NE向,与余震分布的长轴方向一致;位于双石—大川断裂以西台站的快波偏振优势方向为NW向,与区域最大主压应力轴方向一致;位于荥经断裂附近台站的快波偏振优势方向为NW向,与该断裂走向一致．快波偏振优势方向随时间的变化结果显示:主震前位于地震破裂区附近的TQU和BAX台站的快波偏振优势方向均呈NE向;主震后TQU台站的快波偏振优势方向为近EW向,而BAX台站的快波偏振优势方向则不突出,反映出芦山地震主震前快波偏振方向受控于龙门山断裂带,而主震后受构造应力场的作用更加明显．此外,各台站的慢波延迟时间为1.25—5.40ms/km,在余震覆盖密集区域,台站的慢波延迟时间均大于3.0ms/km,反映出震源区的各向异性程度较强．芦山主震后,各台站的延迟时间随时间变化持续减小,反映出震源区地壳应力随余震活动逐渐减小．      

Anisotropy in the Earth's crust and uppermost mantle in southeastern Europe obtained from Rayleigh and Love surface waves

Digital seismograms from 25 earthquakes located in the southeastern part of Europe, recorded by three-component very broadband seismometers at the stations Vitosha (Bulgaria) and Muntele Rosu (Romania), were processed to obtain the dispersion properties of Rayleigh and Love surface waves. Rayleigh and Love group-velocity dispersion curves were obtained by frequency–time analysis (FTAN). The path-averaged shear-wave velocity models were computed from the obtained dispersion curves. The inversion of the dispersion curves was performed using an approach based on the Backus–Gilbert inversion method. Finally, 70 path-averaged velocity models (35 R-models computed from Rayleigh dispersion curves and 35 L-models computed from Love dispersion curves) were obtained for southeastern Europe. For most of the paths, the comparison between each pair of models (R-model and L-models for the same path) shows that for almost all layers the shear-wave velocities in the L-models are higher than in the R-models. The upper sedimentary layers are the only exception. The analysis of both models shows that the depth of the Moho boundary in the L-models is shallower than its depth in the R-models. The existence of an anisotropic layer associated with the Moho boundary at depths of 30–45 km may explain this phenomenon. The anisotropy coefficient was calculated as the relative velocity difference between both R- and L-models at the same depths. The value of this coefficient varies between 0% and 20%. Generally, the anisotropy of the medium caused by the polarization anisotropy is up to 10–12%, so the maximum observed discrepancies between both types of models are also due to the lateral heterogeneity of the shear-wave velocity structure of the crust and the upper mantle in the region.     

甘东南地区地壳介质各向异性特征

利用甘肃数字地震台网(2001 -2008年)的观测资料,采用SAM分析方法进行剪切波分裂,获得了甘东南地区7个台站319条剪切波分裂参数.结果表明甘东南地区快剪切波平均偏振方向与该区域最大主压应力方向一致,是区域应力环境的较好描述;位于活动断裂上或几条活动断裂交汇部位的台站的快剪切波偏振优势方向大多数与对控震的活动断裂走向一致;复杂的局部构造会影响剪切波分裂结果,造成偏振优势方向与主要活动断裂走向不一致,或与区域主压应力相差较大的现象.     

A review of a quarter century of International Workshops on Seismic Anisotropy in the crust (0IWSA–12IWSA)

In 25 years, the presence of azimuthally varying seismic anisotropy throughout the Earth’s crust has progressed from general denial to universal acceptance, so that many international geophysical meetings now have sessions on seismic anisotropy. Over this period, the proceedings of the biennial series of International Workshops in Seismic Anisotropy (IWSAs) have captured many of the notable advances in the theory, calculation, observation and interpretation of particularly shear-wave splitting (seismic birefringence) in the Earth’s crust. Shear-wave splitting is the almost-infallible indicator of seismic anisotropy along the ray path. This paper reviews 13 IWSA meetings (0IWSA–12IWSA) as a catalogue of 25 years of progress in seismic anisotropy. The evidence now suggests that shear-wave splitting monitors the low-level pre-fracturing deformation of the stress-aligned fluid-saturated microcracks pervading almost all in situ rocks in the crust. Shear-wave splitting indicates that microcracks are so closely spaced they are critical systems with all the universality, calculability, predictability, “butterfly wing’s” sensitivity, and deterministic chaos that that implies. This leads to a New Geophysics, where low-level deformation can be monitored with shear-wave splitting, future behaviour calculated–predicted with the anisotropic poro-elastic model of rock evolution, and in some circumstances even potentially controlled by feedback. We anticipate the New Geophysics will greatly invigorate IWSA.     

Effusive history of the Grande Découverte Volcanic Complex, southern Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe, French West Indies) from new K–Ar Cassignol–Gillot ages

The Grande Découverte Volcanic Complex (GDVC), active since at least 0.2 Ma, is the most recent volcanic complex of the Basse-Terre Island (Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles Arc). A detailed geochronological study using the K–Ar Cassignol–Gillot technique has been undertaken in order to reconstruct the history of effusive activity of this long-lived volcanic system. Twenty new ages permit to suggest that the GDVC experienced at least six main effusive stages, from 200 ka to present time. To the north of the GDVC, the GDS (Grande Découverte–Soufrière volcano) has been active since at least 200 ka, and to the south, the TRMF (Trois-Rivières–Madeleine Field), started to be emplaced 100 ka. Morphological investigations suggest that the whole TRMF volcanism was emitted from vents distinct from the GDS, most probably a large E–W fissure network linked to the Marie-Galante rift. The mean age of 62 ± 5 ka, obtained for the E–W Madeleine–Le Palmiste alignment suggests that a fissure-opening event occurred at that time. However, whole-rock major and trace element signatures are similar for both systems, suggesting that a common complex magma-plumbing system has fed the overall GDVC. We report very young ages for lava flows from the TRMF, which implies that < 10 ka volcanic activity is now identified for both massifs. Although hazards associated with such effusive volcanism are much lower than those associated with potential flank-collapse of the Soufrière lava dome or a magmatic dome eruption with explosive phases within the GDS, the emplacement of relatively large Holocene age lava flows (3–1 × 10⁸ m³) suggests that a revised integrated volcanic hazard assessment for Southern Basse-Terre should now consider the potential for renewed future activity from two Holocene volcanic centers including the TRMF.     

Seismic imaging of the geothermal field at Krafla,Iceland using shear-wave splitting

Shear-wave splitting is emerging as a useful exploration method for geothermal reservoirs as it can detect the geometry of the fracture system, the intensity of cracking and possibly, changes in fluid pressure within the reservoir. The method is based on the analyses of polarizations and time delays of shear-waves that have been distorted by the anisotropy of the medium through which the seismic waves have propagated. Observations of shear-wave splitting within the Krafla–Leirhnúkur geothermal field, Iceland, using a 20-station 3-component portable seismic array have provided evidence for at least two major crack systems of microfractures, oriented approximately N–S and E–W. Located microearthquakes align roughly along the E–W direction of the geothermal field, with shallow focal depths mostly around the injection well, probably related to the ongoing injection. This unexpected direction is however consistent with results from a simultaneous MT (magnetotelluric) survey.     

卢龙地区S波偏振与上地壳裂隙各向异性

由三分量数字地震仪组成的小孔径流动台网记录了1982年10月19日河北卢龙M_s=6.1级地震的部分余震.用质点运动图的方法对横波的偏振进行了分析。研究结果表明,在横波窗内的各观测点都存在横波的分裂现象.不同离源角和方位角快波偏振的水平投影都具有近NE40°方向的优势取向,与根据卢龙地震两组断层错动在各向同性介质中所辐射的横波的偏振方向不一致.这可以由传播介质中应力所导致裂隙的定向排列来解释.这一观测结果提供了卢龙地区脆性上地壳大范围膨胀各向异性（EDA）的证据,并表明这一地区直立平行排列裂隙取向和水平主压应力的方向为NE40°.     

Microseismicity, tectonics and seismic potential in southern Caribbean and northern Venezuela

Approximately one thousand microearthquakes with body-wave magnitude mb have been located in northern Venezuela and the southern Caribbean region (9–12° N; 64–70° W) since the installation in 1980 of the Venezuelan Seismological Array, together with forty events of mb 4, one of them with surface-wave magnitude Ms 6. Focal depths are in the range of 0 to <15 km. This geologically complex region is part of the boundary between the Caribbean and the South American Plates. Epicentral locations indicate that this E–W oriented portion of the boundary is formed by two 400 km long subparallel fault zones: San Sebastián fault zone (SSF), 20 km north of Caracas along the coast; and La Victoria fault zone (LVF), 25 km south of the city. They are clearly delineated by the microseismicity. New composite focal mechanism solutions (CFMS) along these faults show right-lateral strike-slip (RLSS) motion on nearly E–W oriented fault planes. NW-striking subsidiary active faults occur in the region and intercept the two main E–W fault zones. These interceptions show high levels of microearthquake activity and seismic moment release when compared to other portions of both, the main and subsidiary faults. New CFMS at those fault crossing sites show NW-striking RLSS motion and normal faulting, in an en-echelon-like structural behavior. Geological data and quantitative comparisons with other transcurrent plate boundaries in the world suggest that the rate of plate motion in this area is on the order of 20 mm/y. Several moderate and large shocks have occurred along the SSF and LVF since 1640, including an Ms 7.6 event in 1900 on SSF. Although the region may be relatively far from a repeat of this earthquake, seismicity data indicate that strong shocks could take place along segments of the seismically active faults identified in this study.     

中国地震科学台阵两期观测资料近场记录揭示的南北地震带地壳剪切波分裂特征

利用中国地震科学台阵第一期(2011-01-2014-06)及部分中国地震科学台阵第二期(2013-02-2015-12)的流动地震台阵记录到的小震波形资料,运用剪切波分裂系统分析(SAM)方法,分析南北地震带的地壳各向异性,对剪切波分裂参数所反映的区域应力环境及构造特征,以及区域内主压应力方向与断裂分布的关系展开讨论.研究结果表明,南北地震带快剪切波偏振方向自北向南由NE向逐渐转变为NNW向,与南北地震带区域主压应力的方向变化具有一致性.区域内分布的大量NE及WNW或NW向断裂构造同样对快波偏振方向有比较大的影响,位于走滑断裂附近的台站,其快波方向与断裂走向大致平行,部分位于走滑断裂附近的台站其快波方向几乎垂直于断裂走向,而与构造应力场方向一致性较好.个别台站表现出复杂快波优势方向特征,反映出研究区内构造环境的复杂性.慢波时间延迟结果显示,南北地震带南段的平均时间延迟高于北段,反映了受印度板块和欧亚板块的碰撞挤压作用,南段地壳介质各向异性程度更大,构造变形更加剧烈.对比南北地震带上地幔各向异性特征,推测在川滇菱形块体内部可能存在复杂的壳幔耦合现象,地壳剪切波分裂除了反映区域应力特征,还可以揭示出区域构造信息.     

Miocene to Quaternary deformation in NE Slovenia: complex paleomagnetic and structural study

Combined paleomagnetic and structural research was carried out in the Mura-Zala Basin including the western and southern surrounding hills in northeastern Slovenia. The Mura-Zala Basin was formed due to ENE–WSW trending crustal extension in the late Early Miocene (18.3–16.5 Ma). First, marine sedimentation took place in several more or less confined depressions, then in a unified basin. During thermal subsidence in the late Miocene deltaic to fluvial sediments were deposited. After sedimentation, the southernmost, deepest depression was inverted. Map-scale folds, reverse and strike-slip faults were originated by NNW–SSE compression. This deformation occurred in the latest Miocene–Pliocene and is reflected also in the magnetic fabric (low field susceptibility anisotropy). After this folding, the Karpatian sediments of the Haloze acquired magnetization, then suffered 30° counterclockwise rotation relative to the present north (40° counterclockwise with respect to stable Europe). This Pliocene (Quaternary?) rotation affected a wide area around the Mura-Zala Basin. The latest Miocene to Quaternary folding and subsequent rotation may be connected to the counterclockwise rotation of the Adriatic microplate.     

Regional energetics over the North Pacific,South China Sea and the Indonesian seas during winter

The energy equation was applied to four limited regions to investigate the basic mechanisms through which area-averaged eddy kinetic energy is maintained during the northern winter. The regions selected for this study are as follows: extratropical North Pacific (24.2°N–44.6°N, 130°E–150°W), tropical eastern North Pacific (0°–19.6°N, 170°W–110°W), South China Sea and. Bay of Bengal (0°–19.6°N, 80°E–140°E), and Timor Sea and eastern Indian Ocean (0°–19.6°S, 80°E–140°E). The zonally averaged upper flows over the first region were found to be barotropically stable. In contrast, they were barotropically unstable over the second region; namely, eddy motions over the tropical eastern North Pacific are maintained by receiving energy from zonal flows via barotropic interaction. The third and fourth regions are characterized by the importance of the conversion process between eddy available potential and eddy kinetic energy.Contribution No. 77-5, Department of Meteorology, University of Hawaii, USA.     

Elastic anisotropy of ferromagnesian post-perovskite in Earth's D” layer

We report experimental observation of a sizable elastic anisotropy in a polycrystalline sample of ferromagnesian silicate in post-perovskite (ppv) structure. Using a novel composite X-ray transparent gasket to contain and synthesize ppv in a panoramic diamond-anvil cell along with oblique X-ray diffraction geometry, we observed the anisotropic lattice strain and {1 0 0} or {1 1 0} slip-plane texture in the sample at 140 GPa. We deduced the elasticity tensor (c_ij), orientation-dependent compressional wave velocities, polarization-dependent shear-wave velocities, and the velocity anisotropy of the silicate ppv. Our results are consistent with calculations and indicate that with sufficient preferred orientation, the elastic anisotropy of this phase can produce large shear-wave splitting.     

2013年芦山地震序列震源机制与震源区构造变形特征分析

基于四川区域地震台网记录的波形资料,利用CAP波形反演方法,同时获取了2013年4月20日芦山M7.0级地震序列中88个M≥3.0级地震的震源机制解、震源矩心深度与矩震级,进而利用应变花（strain rosette）和面应变（areal strain）As值,分析了芦山地震序列震源机制和震源区构造运动与变形特征.获得的主要结果有：（1）芦山M7.0级主震破裂面参数为走向219°/倾角43°/滑动角101°,矩震级为M_W6.55,震源矩心深度15 km.芦山地震余震区沿龙门山断裂带走向长约37 km、垂直断裂带走向宽约16 km.主震两侧余震呈不对称分布,主震南西侧余震区长约27 km、北东侧长约10 km.余震分布在7~22 km深度区间,优势分布深度为9~14 km,序列平均深度约13 km,多数余震分布在主震上部.粗略估计的芦山地震震源体体积为37 km×16 km×16 km.（2）面应变As值统计显示,芦山地震序列以逆冲型地震占绝对优势,所占比例超过93%.序列主要受倾向NW、倾角约45°的近NE-SW向逆冲断层控制;部分余震发生在与上述主发震断层近乎垂直的倾向SE的反冲断层上;龙门山断裂带前山断裂可能参与了部分余震活动.P轴近水平且优势方位单一,呈NW-SE向,与龙门山断裂带南段所处区域构造应力场方向一致,反映芦山地震震源区主要受区域构造应力场控制,芦山地震是近NE-SW向断层在近水平的NW-SE向主压应力挤压作用下发生逆冲运动的结果.序列中6次非逆冲型地震均发生在主震震中附近,且主震震中附近P轴仰角变化明显,表明主震对其震中附近局部区域存在明显的应力扰动.（3）序列整体及不同震级段的应变花均呈NW向挤压白瓣形态,显示芦山地震震源区深部构造呈逆冲运动、NW向纯挤压变形.各震级段的应变花方位与形状一致,具有震级自相似性特征,揭示震源区深部构造运动和变形模式与震级无关.（4）不同深度的应变花形态以NW-NWW向挤压白瓣为优势,显示震源区构造无论是总体还是分段均以NW-NWW向挤压变形为特征.但应变花方位与形状随深度仍具有较明显的变化,可能反映了震源区构造变形在深度方向上存在分段差异.（5）芦山地震震源体尺度较小,且主震未发生在龙门山断裂带南段主干断裂上,南段长期积累的应变能未能得到充分释放,南段仍存在发生强震的危险.